Digitized  by  the  Internet 'Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofwoodshOOcurtrich 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF 
WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


"yke  QraW'J-lillBook  (h  7m 

PUBLISHERS     OF     BOOKS      F  O  P.^ 

Coal  Age  ^  Electric  Railway  Journal 
Electrical  World  v  Engineering  News-Record 
American  Machinist  v  The  Contractor 
Engineering 8 Mining  Journal  ^  Power 
Metallurgical  6  Chemical  Engineering 
Electrical  Merchandising 


THE  ELEMENTS 

OF 

WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


BY 

W.  H.  CURTIS 

NAVAL.   ARCHITECT   AND   MARINE   ENGINEER 


First  Edition 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET.    NEW  YORK 


LONDON:  HILL  PUBLISHING  CO.,  Ltd. 

6  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  E.  C. 

1919 


Copyright.  1919,  by  the 
McGRAW'f'HiLL  Book  Company,  Inc. 


Copyright,  1918,  by  W.  H.  Curtis. 


THE     MAPXi£     FS£BS     YORK    FA. 


GENERAL  PREFACE 


Preface  to  Pamphlet,  Part  I,  issued  by  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  for  use  in  its  classes  in  Wood 
Shipbuilding. 

This  text  on  wood  shipbuilding  was  prepared  by  W.  H.  Curtis,  Port- 
land, Oregon,  for  the  Education  and  Training  Section  of  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation.  It  is  intended  for  the  use  of  carpenters  and  others, 
who,  though  skilled  in  their  work,  lack  the  detail  knowledge  of  ships 
necessary  for  the  efficient  performance  of  their  work  in  the  yard. 

Sea-going  vessels  are  generally  built  according  to  the  rules  of  some 
Classification  Society,  and  all  important  construction  and  fastening 
details  have  to  be  passed  upon  by  the  Classification  Society  under  whose 
inspection  the  vessel  is  to  be  built.  Due  to  this  fact,  requirements  may 
vary  in  detail  from  types  of  construction  here  explained.  It  is  hoped, 
however,  that  this  book  may  be  helpful  to  shipbuilding  classes  and  to 
individual  men  in  the  yard. 

Education  and  Training  Section 

UNITED   STATES   SHIPPING  BOARD 
EMERGENCY  FLEET  CORPORATION 

In  presenting  this  work  due  credit  is  given  Mr.  L.  G. 
Nichols,  Director  of  Education  of  the  Portland,  Oregon, 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  not  only  for  his  active  encouragement  which 
led  to  the  compiUng  of  these  chapters  in  book  form,  but 
also  for  his  energetic  progressiveness  in  organizing  the  first 
successful  class  in  wood  shipbuilding  in  the  United  States, 
the  conducting  of  which  necessitated  the  collecting  of  most 
of  the  information  contained  herein. 

For  purposes  of  publication  the  subject  matter  as  pre- 
sented to  this  class  has  been  completely  revised  and  en- 
larged, and  while  it  is  realized  that  it  still  falls  short  of 
presenting  every  detail  of  the  ship,  it  is  hoped  that  the 
subject  has  been  sufficiently  covered  to  afford  a  valuable 
guide  and  aid  to  workmen  and  students. 

W.  H.  Curtis. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Preface v 

CHAPTER  I 

Keels,  Stems  and  Stern  Posts 1 

Keel  Blocks — ^Laying  out  the  Keel — Stems — Propeller  Posts — 
Rudder  Posts — Shaft  Logs — Glossary. 

CHAPTER  II 

Frames  in  General 32 

Square  Frames — Molding — Bevels  and  Marks — Frame  Horning 
and  Assembling — Frame  Timber  Fastening — Plumbing  and  Squar- 
ing the  First  Square  Frame — Half  Frames  and  Cants — Frame 
Fastening — ^Limbers — Stern — Frames — Glossary. 

CHAPTER  III 

Inboard  Hull  Details 78 

Keelsons — Keelson  Scarfs — Clamps  and  Shelves — Clamp  and 
Shelf  Scarfs — Clamp  and  Shelf  Fastenings — Miscellaneous — Ceil- 
ing— Ceiling  Lining — Pointers  and  Transoms — Hold  Bulkheads — 
Deck  Beams — Hanging  Knees — Hold  Stanchions — Glossary. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Deck  Details 123 

Deck  Beams,  Half  Beams,  Etc. — Hatch  Framing — Hatch  Coamings 
— Hatch  Reinforcing — Deck  and  Breast  Hooks — Mast  Partners 
and  Chocks — Waterways  and  Decking — Hatch  Details — Hatch 
Covers  and  Miscellaneous. 

CHAPTER  V 

Planking,  Erections  and  Joiner  Work 161 

Diagonal  Strapping  and  Planking — Hull  Planking — Spiling — 
Plank  Fastenings — Hull  Erections — Main  Rail — Mast  Collars, 
Wedges  and  Steps. 

Index 221 


vn 


ELEMENTS  OF 
WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


CHAPTER  I 

KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 

KEEL  BLOCKS 

''The  Ship's  Foundation'' 

Every  structure  must  have  a  suitable  foundation.  Float- 
ing structures,  such  as  ships,  are  built  on  temporary 
foundations  called  slips.  When  completed  they  are  then 
launched,  or  permitted  to  slide  into  the  water. 

While  the  slip  is  purely  a  temporary  foundation  for  the 
ship  during  construction,  it  usually  is  permanent  in  itself 
and  may  be  used  for  many  ships. 

The  slip  usually  consists  of  a  very  strong  arrangement 
of  piling,  suitably  capped,  and  decked  over  with  heavy 
planks.  The  decking  of  the  slip  serves  as  a  working  plat- 
form under  the  ship.  Since  the  ship  must  be  launched 
into  the  water  it  is  necessary  for  end  launchings  to  build 
the  slip  on  an  incline  which  slopes  downward  toward  the 
water.  This  slope  is  usually  about  %  to  %  of  an  inch 
to  the  foot,  ^.  e.,  %  to  ^i  of  an  inch  of  fall  to  one  foot  of 
length. 

The  keel  blocks  are  arranged  on  top  of  the  slip.  They 
serve  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  ship  and  to  obtain  the 
proper  working  room  between  the  ship's  bottom  and  the 
slip.  Keel  blocks  must  be  so  built  as  to  be  easily  removed 
just  before  the  ship  is  launched.  The  keel  is  the  first 
piece  in  any  ship  to  be  assembled  in  the  building  slip,  and 
since  the  keel  blocks  form  the  foundation  proper  for  the 
keel,  it  is  necessary  to  have  them  in  place  before  the  keel 
can  be  laid. 

1 


2        ELEMENTS  OF  V/OOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


KEEL   BLOCK  CRIB 


KEEL  AS  LAID  WITHOUT    SHOE 


WEPqES 
-SEE   RG.a 


ELEVATION 


T^^  SAME  THICKNESS  AS  SHOE. 


y^^^^yi        E?^/-//»^ 


m^MMi     uwA^^ 


FIGURE'S 
END  VIEiW 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS  3 

Keel  blocks  may  be  cribbed,  as  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  or  plain, 
as  in  Figs.  3  and  4.  The  cribbing  is  to  steady  the  blocks 
during  the  early  part  of  construction,  when  they  do  not 
carry  much  weight.  At  least  half  of  the  blocks  should  be 
cribbed,  and  in  some  yards  they  are  all  cribbed.  In  all 
cases  they  must  be  placed  directly  over  the  piling  of  the 
slip.  Thus  the  spacing  of  the  keel  blocks  is  regulated 
by  the  bents  of  piling  under  the  slip.  This  is  ordinarily 
six  to  eight  feet  from  center  to  center  of  the  blocks. 

Since  the  slip  has  an  incline,  the  keel  blocks,  if  left  square 
on  the  bottom,  would  not  stand  plumb,  but  would  lean 
toward  the  lower  end  of  the  slip.  If  wide  blocking  is  used, 
say  18  inches  or  over,  this  inclination  of  the  blocks  need 
not  be  considered.  If  the  blocking  is  much  narrower  than 
18  inches,  the  bottom  block  should  be  scribed  off  so  that 
the  entire  set  will  stand  plumb.  Where  the  blocks  are 
cribbed  this  latter  operation  involves  a  great  deal  of  extra 
work  on  the  upper  and  lower  blocks,  as  the  cribbing  planks, 
if  the  block  stands  plumb,  must  stand  on  a  level.  It  is, 
therefore,  economy  to  use  wide  blocking  and  then  permit 
the  set  to  lean  with  the  slip. 

The  top,  or  wedge,  block  should  be  shaped,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  3  and  fitted  with  wedges  to  be  used  in  lining  up  the 
keel.  Good  proportions  and  proper  settings  for  wedges 
are  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6. 

If  a  shoe  or  false  keel  is  to  be  fitted  it  cannot  be  placed 
until  the  frames  have  been  erected  and  the  keelson  is  in 
place  and  fastened  down,  as  the  main  keelson  bolts  are 
clinched  up  under  the  keel.  Therefore,  an  extra  block, 
having  the  same  thickness  as  the  shoe,  should  be  fitted 
above  the  cribbing  and  under  the  wedge  block,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  1  and  2.  This  block  is  to  be  removed  when  the 
shoe  is  fitted,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Keels  are  customarily  laid  on  the  same  slope  as  the  slip. 
However,  since  wood  ships  have  considerable  tendency 
to  hog,  i.  e.,  drop  at  the  ends,  after  launching,  the  keel 
is  laid  with  a  spring,  or  sag,  in  the  middle.  Thus,  when  the 
vessel  hogs  slightly  after  launching,  the  keel,  instead  of 


4        ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PLAIN  KEEL  BLOCK 

SHOW)Nq    SHOE  IN  PLACE 


KEEL 
SHOE 


/  y — WEDGE   B 


LOCK 


FIQURE-S 
END  VIEW 


ELEVATION 


PROPORTIONS  OF  WEDGES 


BUTT 
SQUARE 

CHAMFER -"^ 


FIGURE-5 

L»5to6XD 


PROPER  PLACING  OF  WEDGES 

SHORT  SURFACE 


LONa    SURFACE 


Fx^vin^-e 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS  5 

showing  the  hog,  merely  tends  to  straighten  out.  The 
amount  of  spring  used  varies  greatly  with  different  design- 
ers. A  fair  average  would  be  between  1}^  and  2  inches 
for  each  100  feet  of  keel  length. 

Where  the  keel  is  laid  on  the  same  slope  as  the  slip  the 
two  end  blocks  will  be  the  same  height.  The  middle  block 
will  be  lower  by  just  the  amount  of  the  spring.  On  the 
blocks  between  the  middle  and  the  ends  the  spring  is 
roughly  estimated  when  the  blocks  are  first  set  up,  the 
final  adjustment  being  made  by  dubbing  the  top  block, 
or  driving  and  slackening  the  wedges  after  the  keel  is  up. 
The  tops  of  the  wedge  blocks  must  be  dubbed  to  fay 
accurately  to  the  bottom  of  the  keel. 

The  blocks  and  cribs  should  not  be  spiked  together. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  steady  the  blocks  while  the  keel  is 
being  laid,  they  should  be  Hghtly  toenailed.  The  nails 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  blocks  have  enough 
weight  on  them  to  be  steady. 

The  height  of  keel  blocks  used  in  different  yards  is  by 
no  means  uniform.  However,  the  distance  from  the  top 
of  the  slipway  planking  to  the  top  of  the  keel  should  not 
be  less  than  five  feet,  nor  more  than  six  feet. 

LAYING  OUT  THE  KEEL 

The  first  step  in  laying  out  the  keel  is  to  locate  and  scribe 
across  the  top  and  down  eacli  side  all  frame  centers  on  each 
piece  of  the  keel,  as  shown  on  the  plans.  These  are  then 
numbered  in  the  same  order  as  marked  on  the  plans. 
This  is  very  important,  as  nearly  all  construction  details 
in  ships  are  located  by  frame  numbers.  The  frame  center- 
lines  should  be  scribed  with  a  race  knife,  and  the  numbers 
marked  with  heavy  blue  or  black  crayon. 

The  plans  show  the  location  of  the  scarfs,  and  these  may 
now  be  accurately  marked  out  between  the  proper  frames. 
The  nibs  of  scarfs,  unless  otherwise  called  for,  should  land 
about  half  way  between  frame  centers.  If  a  scarf  six 
depths  long  is  too  short  to  land  thus,  it  should  be  made 


6        ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


KEEL  ENDS 


-OUTER  R/^BBETL|HE 


!lt!^m^'^ii^rH%%ii^%i^^s  g^ 


^ 


FIQURE'7 


KEEU 


•SHO^ 


SECTION  AT  FRAME  W>e4-  5ECTIOW  AT  FRAME  Wg8a 


FIOURE-e 


FIOURE'9 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


KEEL 

PROPER  PLACING  OF  SCARFS 


IN  THREE  P»ECE  KEEL 


FRAME    CENTERS 


ALL  BOLTS  ARE  DfftFTEO  AND  CLINCHED 


FORWARD  END 


FIGURE-IQ 

>^FTER  SCARFS 


AFTER  END 


FRAME  CENTERS 


ALL  BOLTS  ARE  DRIFTED  AND  CLINCHED 


y^FTER  END 


FIGURE-II 

FORWARD -SCARFS 


FORWARD  END 


LAYOUT  OF  SPRING  ON  KEEL 


FIGURE-12 


8        ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

longer,  not  shorter.  The  length  of  scarf  to  be  used  is 
generally  indicated  on  the  plans. 

Keel  scarfs  must  be  clinch  bolted.  A  common  rule  is 
two  bolts  between  each  frame.  The  plans  should  be  care- 
fully noted  in  this  respect,  as  additional  bolts  are  some- 
times called  for.  These  bolts,  in  so  far  as  possible,  should  be 
kept  clear  of  the  frame  landings  and  arranged  as  shown 
in  Figs.  10  and  11. 

The  forward  and  middle  scarfs  are  generally  set  a,s 
shown  in  Fig.  11.  Sometimes  the  after  scarf  is  reversed, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  This  permits  the  removal  of  the  after 
piece  of  keel  in  case  of  damage  without  rescarfing  the  piece 
next  to  it.  Where  this  is  not  done  all  scarfs  will  set  as 
shown  in  Fig.  11. 

Molds  are  furnished  from  the  loft  for  the  forward  and 
after  ends  of  the  keel.  These  molds  have  the  frame  num- 
bers scribed  on  them,  and  when  matched  up  with  the  same 
frame  numbers  on  the  keel  give  the  exact  location  of  the 
cuts. 

Three  styles  of  forward  ends  are  shown  in  Figs.  7,  8  and 
9.  These  may  be  named  in  very  much  the  same  manner 
as  scarfs.  Fig.  7  would  be  called  ''plain, "  Fig.  8,  ''locked,'' 
and  Fig.  9,  "nibbed."  The  depth  of  nib  or  lock  may  be 
the  same  as  that  of  nibs  for  scarfs,  but  in  no  case  should  it 
be  less.  Where  the  lock  or  nib  is  used,  the  rabbet  lines  are 
so  adjusted  in  the  loft  that  the  outer  rabbet  line  will  cross 
well  up  on  the  lock,  or  nib,  but  not  higher  than  the  top  of 
the  keel.  The  use  of  the  lock  or  nib  properly  arranged 
avoids  the  forming  of  a  shim  where  the  outer  rabbet  hne 
leaves  the  keel.  In  the  plain  end,  where  this  shim  is  always 
formed,  some  difficulty  is  often  encountered  by  the  shim 
starting  to   split  out  when  the  rabbet  seam  is  calked. 

The  after  end  of  the  keel  must  be  worked  to  receive  the 
lower  ends  of  the  stern,  or  propeller  post,  and  the  rudder 
post,  if  one  is  to  be  fitted.  These  landings  are  very  often 
called  "steps." 

If  the  vessel  is  a  single-screw  ship  with  a  wood  rudder,  it 
will  have  a  propeller  post  and  a  rudder  post.     The  propeller 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


>i\FTER  KEEL  ENDS 


PROPELLER  POST 


RUDDER  POST 


1  i 

t 

s 

i 

♦    1 

,     . 

J  1 

!    s 

1  ^ 

i\ 

^^      1 

!  ♦ 

'   1 

LfJ 

Ui 

PROPEUUER 


.aperture: 


! 

:  ♦ 

*    I 

-A 

t 

M 

Ti 

''^^ 

1 

^   i    i 

f. 

7 

1 

J 

FIGURE- 13   FOR  SINGLE  SCREMT  SHIPS  IVITH  WOOD  RUDDERS 

*'■■ 

/  z. 


M 


5^ 


E 


I 


riGUREI"l4FOR  TIVIN  SCREW  SHIPS  lYITH  VyOOD  RUDDERS 
•1 


PROPELLgR 
y^PERTURt 


M 


g+2.J^ 


\    i 

T 


FIGURE- IS  FOR  3IN6LE  SCREW  SHIPS  WITH  MfOOD  RUPPER5 


j;./Vv/^A,v'.;l 


ll\ 


I  II  \ 


..rr^. 


^T"* 


.---t;::-- 


i-J 


ft  1  o 

FIGURE."  16  FOR  SINGLE,  OR  TWIN  SCREW  SHIPS  WITH  STEEL  RUDDERS 


10      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

post  is  also  the  stern  post.  See  Figs.  13  and  15.  A  single- 
screw  ship  with  a  steel  rudder  will  have  propeller  post, 
which  is  also  the  stern  post.  See  Fig.  16.  A  twin-screw 
ship,  with  a  wood  rudder,  will  have  a  stern  post,  which  is 
also  the  rudder  post,  and  will  have  no  propeller  post.  See 
Fig.  14. 

Fig.  13  shows  the  boxed,  or  blind,  mortise  step  for  stern 
and  rudder  posts.  Figs.  14  and  15  show  the  open  mortise 
step.  Either  of  these  steps  may  be  used  with  any  arrange- 
ment of  posts.  If  a  mold  is  not  furnished  for  locating  and 
marking  out  the  steps,  then  the  distance  from  a  given  frame 
center  and  the  dimensions  for  the  mortises  are  supplied  from 
the  loft,  or  drafting  room.  The  proportions  of  mortise 
and  step  may  or  may  not  be  indicated  on  the  plans.  Very 
often  this  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  carpenter  foreman. 
Good  proportions  are  shown  in  Figs.  13,  14  and  15. 

Fig.  16  shows  an  arrangement  where  a  steel  rudder  is 
fitted.  It  will  be  noted  that  a  steel  shoe  is  used  to  carry  the 
lower  rudder  bearing,  and  that  the  keel  is  extended  abaft  the 
post  only  far  enough  to  receive  a  steel  knee.  In  addition, 
there  are  steel  side  plates  (not  shown)  extending  from  the 
shoe  well  up  on  each  side  of  the  stern  post.  All  of  the  types 
shown  are  fitted  with  steel  or  bronze  side  plates  extending 
along  each  side  of  the  keel  and  well  up  on  the  stern  and 
rudder  posts.     These  will  be  more  fully  described  later  on. 

The  rabbet  on  the  keel  is  laid  out  from  offsets  taken  from 
the  loft  floor.  The  offsets  give  the  distances  in  from  the 
side  for  the  inner  rabbet  line  and  down  from  the  top  for 
the  outer  rabbet  line.  Unless  there  is  a  back  rabbet  the 
surface  between  the  two  lines  is  cut  straight.  The  offsets 
are  taken  at  designated  frame  centers.  Where  there  is  a 
back  rabbet,  fids,  or  small  molds,  are  prepared  in  the 
loft  to  fit  the  shape  of  the  rabbet  at  about  every  other  frame 
center.  The  inner  and  outer  rabbet  lines  are  then  used  as 
limit  guides  for  the  fids. 

The  rabbets  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  keel  should  not 
be  cut  until  after  the  framing  has  been  completed.  Then, 
as  the  frames  are  dubbed,  the  rabbets  are  cut  and  faired. 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS  11 

As  before  mentioned,  keels  are  laid  without  the  shoe  when 
the  main  keelson  bolts  are  to  be  clinched  under  the  keel. 
After  the  main  keelsons  are  in  place  and  fastened  down, 
the  keel  is  jacked  up  a  section  at  a  time  and  the  shoe  slipped 
into  place  in  short  pieces.  Since  the  shoe  is  merely  a  fender 
for  the  keel  it  need  not  be  in  long  lengths.  It  is  fastened 
with  common  ship  spikes,  spaced  about  12  inches  apart 
and  staggered. 

After  the  keel  has  been  laid  on  the  blocks  and  the  scarfs 
bolted  up  it  must  then  be  faired  to  the  spring  points.  This 
is  best  done  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  a  transit, 
although  it  can  be,  and  very  often  is,  done  by  sighting  with 
the  eye.  After  fairing  to  the  spring  the  keel  must  then  be 
shored  sideways  until  perfectly  straight.  If  there  is  a 
taper  in  siding  at  each  end,  a  full  length  centerline  is  scribed 
for  this  purpose.  While  a  straight-sided  keel  can  be  sighted 
fairly  well  with  the  eye,  a  tapered  keel  should  always  be 
lined  with  a  transit. 

The  proportions  for  spring  points  between  the  middle  and 
the  ends  of  the  keel  are  shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  figure  has, 
of  course,  been  very  much  foreshortened  to  bring  it  within 
the  limits  of  the  page,  but  this  does  not  alter  the  principle 
involved. 

In  the  figure,  S  represents  the  amount  of  spring,  and  L 
the  length  of  the  keel.  Example — Let  S  equal  5  inches  and 
L  equal  240  feet.  Then  L  over  8  equals  30  feet;  He  of 
S  equals  He  of  one  inch,  Jfe  of  S  equals  IH  inches, 
and  He  of  S  equals  2iHe  inches.  Therefore,  the  keel 
at  a  point  30  feet  each  way  from  the  middle  and  lowest 
point  will  rise  He  of  one  inch  from  the  line  N-N;  60  feet 
out  from  the  middle  it  will  rise  IH  inches  above  the  line 
N-N;  90  feet  out,  2iHe  inches,  and  120  feet  out  5  inches, 
or  the  full  amount  of  the  spring.  Obviously,  these  offsets 
may  be  subtracted  from  5  inches  and  the  remainders  meas- 
ured down  from  the  line  0-0  passing  through  the  ends  of 
the  keel,  and  in  practice  this  is  the  simpler  way  to  do  it. 


12      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

STEMS 

There  are  several  good  arrangements  of  stem  construc- 
tion in  common  use.  A  few  of  these  are  shown  in  Figs. 
17,  18  and  19.  In  some  cases  the  inner  rabbet  line  is  laid 
out  on  the  joint  between  the  stem  and  the  apron,  resulting 
in  what  is  known  as  a  free  stem.  See  Fig.  18.  It  will  be 
noted,  in  this  case,  that  the  planking  merely  butts  against 
the  stem  and  that  all  of  the  plank  end  fastening  will  land 
in  the  apron.  The  more  common  method  is  to  lay  out  the 
rabbet  well  onto  the  stem,  so  as  to  get  some  of  the  plank  end 
fastening  into  the  stem  proper. 

Stems  are  not  set  up  square  off  the  keel,  as  this  would 
make  them  appear  to  be  leaning  backward.  Not  only  is 
the  stem  leaned,  or  raked  forward,  but  very  often  the  for- 
ward face  is  cut  on  a  slight  forward  spring,  or  roman  nosed, 
as  it  were,  to  avoid  the  hollow  appearance  which  a  perfectly 
straight  stem  has.  In  a  stem  48  feet  long  the  rake  forward 
would  be  from  6  to  12  inches,  and  the  spring  about  1  to 
l}i  inches. 

Molds,  showing  the  exact  shape  of  each  piece  of  the  stem 
structure,  are  furnished  from  the  loft.  These  molds  have 
the  waterlines  and  frame  centers  marked  upon  them,  and 
these  lines  should  be  transferred  to  the  various  pieces  by 
the  carpenter  laying  them  out.  They  are  used  for  future 
location  of  framing,  etc.  The  molds  also  show  the  outer 
rabbet  line  and  the  bearding  line.  If  the  rabbet  varies  in 
depth  this  also  will  be  marked,  thus  giving  full  information 
for  laying  out  and  cutting  the  rabbet.  In  addition,  the 
width  of  the  forward  face  of  the  stem  and  forefoot  will  be 
marked  at  frequent  intervals  on  their  respective  molds. 
Since  the  tapered  side  of  the  stem  always  extends  back  to 
the  outer  rabbet  line,  this  gives  sufficient  information  for 
the  shaping  of  that  portion  of  the  stem  forward  of  the  outer 
rabbet  line.  The  siding  of  the  stem  in  way  of  the  outer 
rabbet  line  always  remains  constant,  i.  e.,  it  will  be  the 
same  at  top,  middle  and  bottom. 

The  stem,  apron  and  forefoot  are  assembled  and  bolted 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


13 


T YPI CAL   STEAMER  STEM 


■STg•^f 


SECTION'A-A 


Be/9ROIMG   UNE 


gur^/ff{ABe^T^fN£ 


PLUMB  LWg, 


f^OReCJISrLE.   DECK  LINE, 


riGURE'ir 


PgfA^  4Wg 


—        \_^^M/r 


14      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


SHOWIHQ  ALSO    HAMMER  O 

m  WA1  or 


TYPICAL    FREE   STEM 


UIWB.   cr^ossiwcs 


o  gTEw  AHo  Keeu 


STEM 


SECTION' B'B 


oute;/^  fjAfG^UHt 


^LVMB  LINK 


j^of^eroor  h  ftee 


r-T 


BEJ^I^Dtm  Uf9^ 


/rw£R  jreei-soM 


MAIM  KEKLSOH 


-^-^     r/cLe^ 


f<£EL 


\      ^HO£ 


FIGURE'18 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS  15 

together  on  the  ground.  If  knightheads  are  fitted  they  are 
also  worked  out  and  fastened  down  to  the  apron  at  this 
time.  (Knightheads  are  really  a  part  of  the  frame  and  will 
be  more  fully  described  in  the  next  chapter  on  framing.) 
Then,  at  the  proper  time,  the  entire  stem  structure  is 
erected  and  shored  in  position.  Three  long,  heavy  shores 
are  used — one  forward  and  one  on  each  side.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  set  the  stem  plumb  and  to  the  correct  rake  with 
the  keel. 

The  straight  rabbet  on  the  stem  is  cut  before  erection. 
Below  the  turn  of  the  forefoot  it  usually  is  not  cut  until 
the  frame  has  been  set  up  and  is  being  dubbed.  With  care- 
ful loft  work,  however,  the  entire  rabbet  may  be  cut  with 
very  little  danger  of  making  a  serious  error. 

The  fastening  of  the  stem  at  the  forefoot  must  be  care- 
fully laid  out,  or  it  will  be  impossible  to  drive  a  sufficient 
number  of  bolts  through.  Stern  and  forefoot  bolts,  when- 
ever possible,  are  driven  through  and  clinched.  An  ex- 
ample of  this  fastening  is  shown  in  Fig.  20.  Plans  for  this 
fastening  are  usually  furnished  and  should  be  closely 
followed. 

PROPELLER  POSTS 

Figs.  21  and  22  show  two  typical  forms  of  stern,  or  propel- 
ler posts  that  are  in  common  use.  In  Fig.  21  the  post  is 
cut  'off  at  and  mortised  into  the  horn  timber,  while  in 
Fig.  22  it  is  extended  upward  between  two  horn  timbers 
and  connects  to  a  deck  beam.  The  two  forms  result  in 
entirely  different  stern  frame  arrangements,  which  will  be 
shown  in  the  next  chapter.  The  post  in  Fig.  21  is  most 
commonly  used  in  small,  single-deck  vessels,  and  that  in 
Fig.  22  in  larger  vessels  with  more  than  one  deck.  Either 
post,  however,  may  be  used  on  large  or  small  ships. 

The  figures  show  the  posts  as  finished.  Molds  are 
furnished  from  the  loft,  giving  the  exact  length  and  shape 
of  the  post,  tenons  at  top  and  bottom,  location  and  size  of 
shaft  hole,  and  the  seat  for  the  arch  knee.  As  a  rule  the 
rabbets  are  not  cut  until  the  stern  framing  is  completed, 
and  then  only  as  the  dubbing  proceeds,  as  it  is  difficult  to 


16      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


TYPICAL  STEM  WITH  GRIPE 


STSM 

r- 

oi/re/p  ff/iBBer  un£ 

PLUMB  Uft^ 

4 

QRiPE 

\ 

FORCCrtSTLE  D£CK  UHE. 


MJtm  DECK  LINE 


/^Pf^ON 


TI^EEN  DECKS  LINE 


O^/^ptfQop 


f?iDER  /fEELSOH 


AtAiN  tfC£LSON 


\    snit 


FIGURE-19 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


17 


TYPICAL  STEM  FASTENINGS 


X 


ORDER  or  BOLTING 

AdRIKEN  when  stem  ISASSE-hlBLCD  ON  THE  QROUND 

BpRIVEW  WHEN  STEM  IS  ERECTED  ON  KEEL 

C  PPIVEH  vyHEN  KEELSON  IS  LAID 

D  DRIVEN  WHEN  FIRST  PIECE  OF  DEADHrOOD  IS  FITTED 
E  DRIVEN  WHEN  SECOND  PIECE  OFOCADWOOD  IS  FITTED 


P  DRIVEN  WHEN  THIRD  PIECE  OF  DEADWOOO  ISRTTBD 


1 


'    /     / 7 — l-f-l j-j      ^ 

v^    /       /      /    /    /       I       !      f 


FIGURE- 20 


18      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


STERN  POST 


AS  USED  ON  SMALL  SlwqLE  SCREW  SmgLE  DECK  VESSEl^S 


^    RABBET  LINES 


SECTIOW-A-A 


SECTfOH-B'B  - 

s 

.FORW/IRD 


<« 


SECTION 'C-C 


IMM£K  RABBET  UMK 


^  OUTTRMBBETLUie 


9ti/lfr  nquE 


F- 1  CURE.- a  I 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


19 


STERN  POST 


AS  USED  Oti  LARGE.  SINGLE  SCREW  VESSELS 


MOKMjrmBER 


£/tCM  SlOe  OF  POST 


JNNER  fJ/JBBer 


OUT£f^  RABBET 


SECTION -A-A 


FORWARD 


¥f/IBB£T 


SCAT  FOR  DECK  BEAM 


PEAO  WOOD  BETWeUI 


HORN  rmBEKSSAT 


FORWARD  FMce 


AFTER  FACE. 


OUTER  RABBET  LIME 


IMHER  RJtBBETUHE 


FiauRE'za 


CJ 


20      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

lay  them  out  with  sufficient  accuracy.  But  the  shape  of 
the  post,  in  siding,  can,  and  ought  to  be,  roughed  out  a 
little  over  size,  as  this  saves  dubbing  after  erection.  The 
post  is  not  finally  faired  off  to  the  shape  shown  in  the  figures 
until  after  the  planking  has  been  completed. 

Where  extreme  care  is  taken  in  molding  and  setting  the 
stern  frame  and  in  laying  out  the  siding  and  rabbets  on 
the  post,  the  rabbets  may  be  cut  before  the  post  is  set  up. 
Even  in  this  case  it  is  best  to  rough  out  the  rabbets  under- 
size,  leaving  the  finishing  operation  until  the  dubbing  is 
being  done. 

The  post  should  be  left  full  in  siding  forward  of  the  rabbet 
at  the  top,  so  that  most  of  the  bearding  will  fall  on  the  post. 
Where  this  is  not  done,  i.  e.,  where  the  post  is  cut  straight 
from  top  of  boss  to  top,  shims  and  chocks  have  to  be  fitted 
to  take  the  plank  end  fastening.  They  make  a  poor  job 
and,  in  addition,   are  very  troublesome. 

RUDDER  POSTS 

In  single-screw  vessels  having  a  wood  rudder  there  will 
be  a  rudder  post  abaft  the  stern  post.  The  space  between 
the  two  posts  is  called  the  propeller  aperture.  A  typical 
construction  for  this  post  is  shown  in  Fig.  23.  The  layout 
method  for  this  post  is  the  same  as  that  described  later 
for  Fig.  25,  although  the  construction  of  the  trunk  is 
different.  Since  the  rabbet,  in  Fig.  23,  crosses  the  trunk 
in  a  straight  line  and  does  not  turn  down  onto  the  post,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  25,  the  trunk  can  be  built  up,  as  shown  in 
section  A-A.  This  saves  a  great  deal  of  labor  and  material, 
as  the  post  can  then  be  ordered  to  the  siding  of  the  lower 
end  instead  of  to  the  siding  of  the  trunk,  and  there  will  be 
no  excess  material  on  the  lower  end  to  be  cut  away.  All  of 
the  joints  in  this  trunk,  as  well  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  25, 
should  be  well  packed  with  white  lead  and  cotton  before 
bolting  up.  Very  often,  in  addition  to  this,  a  seam  is  left, 
which  is  calked  with  oakum  after  bolting  up. 

The  entire  trunk  must  be  clamped  together  hard  before 
the  holes  are  bored  and  the  bolts  driven  and  clinched. 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


21 


RUDDER  POST 

AS  IN  SINGLE  SCREW  STEAMERS 


KAIR  IVATER 


rORWARD 


RUDDER  BRACES 


GUOGEOH 


©    @T 


f   ill  Hi 


U 


CLINCH  BOLTS, 


CLEARANCE  LINE 


^^STrtCK&PIWTLES 


V 


riGURE'g4 


FIGURE-23 


22      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

Very  often  the  main  piece  of  this  post  is  made  of  hard- 
wood. A  fairwater  is  fitted  on  the  forward  side  of  all  rudder 
posts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23.  This  is  spiked  in  place  with 
ship  spikes,  after  the  arch  knees  have  been  fitted. 

In  twin-screw  vessels  with  a  wood  rudder  there  will  be 
a  stern  post,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25.  An  outline  of  the  rudder 
blade  and  stock  is  also  shown  in  this  figure.  Here,  as  shown 
in  sections  A-A  and  B-B,  the  main  piece  and  forward  part  of 
the  trunk  are  cut  from  a  single  timber.  The  afterpiece 
of  the  trunk  is  much  the  same  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  23. 
Before  the  stern  frame  is  complete,  in  this  as  in  the  propeller 
posts  shown  in  Figs.  21  and  22,  the  rabbets  are  merely 
roughed  out,  or  left  uncut,  the  final  cutting  being  done  dur- 
ing the  dubbing  operation.  The  turn  on  the  rabbet  at  the 
tuck  should  be  roughed  out  quite  full,  as  indicated  in  the 
figure. 

To  lay  out  the  trunk  and  clearance  line  one  must  know 
the  diameters  of  the  stock  and  pintles  and  the  location  of 
the  uppermost  gudgeon.  A  detail  drawing  of  the  braces 
should  also  be  available.  A  set  of  braces,  consisting  of 
gudgeon  and  pintle,  are  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

The  distance  from  the  after  side  of  the  post  to  the  center 
line  of  the  stock  and  pintles  is  usually  shown  on  the  plans 
or  can  be  taken  from  the  detail  drawing  of  the  braces. 
However,  in  the  absence  of  this  information,  it  is  usually 
made  equal  to  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  pintle  plus 
%  of  an  inch  to  1  inch  for  clearance. 

The  lap  of  the  stock  onto  the  blade  should  be,  at  least, 
from  one-fourth  to  one-third  the  length  of  the  blade 
measured  in  the  same  direction  as  the  stock.  This  lap 
is  often  called  the  ''plug."  Sometimes  the  entire  stock 
is  so-called.  The  diameter  of  hole  in  the  trunk,  athwart- 
ships,  should  be  equal  to  diameter  of  stock  plus  about  1 
inch. 

Then,  to  obtain  the  clearance,  locate  and  draw  outline 
of  top  gudgeon.  From  a  point  at  the  top  of  the  post 
about  3  inches  from  the  forward  face  draw  a  straight 
line  N-N  passing  about  }i  inch  outside  the  outline  of  the 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


23 


STERN  POST  ON  SAILING  VESSELS  OR  TiVIN  SCREWSTE>IMERS 


I^RVDDEW  STOCK 


I  I         I'l    FIGURE-aS 


e 


24      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

gudgeon.  This  line  is  the  clearance  line,  and  represents 
the  foremost  extent  of  the  hole  in  the  trunk  required  to 
clear  the  stock  past  the  top  gudgeon  when  shipping  the 
rudder. 

Then  measure  square  out  from  the  line  N-N  the  distance, 
Dia.  of  stock  plus  1  inch,  and  draw  the  short  line  0  parallel 
to  N-N.  The  line  O  then  indicates  the  amount  that  must 
be  removed  from  the  lower  after  side  of  the  trunk  to  clear 
the  stock  when  shipping  the  rudder.  The  remainder  of 
the  hole  in  the  trunk  is  obtained  by  measuring  out  each 
side  from  the  centerline,  the  distance,  }i  Dia.  of  stock  plus 
3^^  inch,  and  drawing  parallel  lines  until  they  intersect 
the  lines  N-N  and  O.  The  forward  one  of  these  lines 
must  be  carried  down  on  the  main  piece  far  enough  to 
clear  the  plug.  All  of  these  lines  are  shown  on  the  molds 
for  the  post  and  are  readily  transferred  to  the  timbers. 

The  after  face  of  the  post  below  the  trunk  is  bevelled 
off  each  side  of  the  centerline  to  an  angle  of  about  22 
degrees,  as  shown  in  section  D-D.  Since  the  forward 
edge  of  the  rudder  is  cut  to  the  same  bevels,  and  there  is 
about  %  of  an  inch  clearance  between  the  rudder  and  the 
post,  this  permits  the  rudder  to  go  over  about  45  degrees 
each  side  of  the  centerline. 

The  travel  of  the  rudder  as  given  above  is  not  neces- 
sarily the  rule  in  all  ships,  and  the  plans  should  be  carefully 
followed  should  other  degrees  of  travel  be  specified. 

SHAFT  LOGS 

Every  powered  vessel,  whether  single-  or  twin-screw, 
must  be  fitted  with  a  shaft  log  or  tube,  for  each  shaft,  so 
arranged  as  to  provide  support  for  the  shaft  bearings  and 
secure  watertightness  where  the  shaft  passes  through  the 
hull  or  deadwood.  In  a  single-screw  vessel  the  log  will  be 
on  the  centerline  and  will  fit  against  or  mortise  into  the 
stern  post.  Such  a  log  is  shown  in  Fig.  26.  In  a  twin- 
screw  vessel  the  log  will  pass  through  the  hull  some  distance 
away  from  the  centerline,  but  the  construction  of  the  log 
will  be  the  same  as  that  shown. 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS 


25 


SHAFT  LOG 


^^J<K)v! 

Q 
Z 
Ul 

k 

< 

m 

tfe 


« 

Ul 

n 

Nk^ 

5 

^ 

' 

26      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

These  logs,  where  not  necessary  to  use  four  timbers, 
are  built  in  halves,  each  half  having  exactly  one-half  of 
the  hole  cut  in  it.  The  joint  between  the  two  halves 
is  arranged  as  a  calking  seam  with  an  opening  of  about 
%  2-inch  outside.  In  addition,  it  is  customary  to  fit  a 
soft  wood. spline  on  each  side  of  the  hole  and  inside  of  the 
line  of  bolts.  If  a  good  fit  is  secured  these  splines  will 
make  the  log  watertight  without  the  calking.  These  logs 
are  afterwards  bored  out  perfectly  true  and  fitted  with  lead 
or  iron  sleeves,  which  are  watertight,  but  this  does  not  re- 
lieve the  workman  from  the  necessity  of  making  the  log  as 
tight  as  possible  without  the  sleeve. 

Logs  may  or  may  not  be  made  with  a  tenon  for  mortising 
into  the  stern  post.  With  careful  workmanship  the  mor- 
tise makes  the  best  job. 

The  bolting,  or  fastening,  of  the  log  varies  with  different 
ships.  Logs  made  for  insertion  through  the  skin  of  the 
ship,  as  for  twin-screws,  are  invariably  bolted  up  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  Where  possible,  this  should  be  done  with 
centerline  logs  for  single-screw  ships.  Where  it  is  not 
possible  to  drive  bolts  from  the  top  of  the  log,  clear  of  the 
hole  and  into  the  deadwood  below,  then  the  lower  half 
of  the  log  is  fastened  in  place  first,  bolts  being  driven 
through  it  and  well  into  the  deadwood  below.  Then  the 
top  half  is  fastened  to  the  first  half  with  bolts  arranged 
as  shown  in  the  figure.  These  bolts  cannot  be  clinched. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  log  can  be  bolted 
up  before  being  placed  in  the  ship.  The  two  halves  must 
be  clamped  together  very  tight  before  holes  are  bored,  and 
bolts  driven  and  clinched.  Clinch  rings  should  be  set  in 
flush. 

GLOSSARY 

Athwartship — Across  the  ship — at  right  angle  to  the  keel. 
Dimensions — Molded    Length — The    extreme    distance    from    plank 
rabbet  on  the  stem  to  the  plank  rabbet  on  the  stern.     Length  between 
perpendiculars.     The  distance  from  the  fore  side  of  the  stem  to  the 
after  side  of  the  rudder  post,  measured  on  the  keel. 
Molded  Depth — The  perpendicular  distance  amidship  from  the  top 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS  27 

of  the  keel  to  the  top  of  the  main  deck  beam  at  the  outside  of  the  frame. 
Depth  of  Hold — The  perpendicular  distance  amidship,  from  the  top 
of  the  bottom  ceiling  to  the  top  of  the  main  deck  beam  at  the  centerline. 
Molded  Beam — The  width  of  the  ship  at  the  main  deck  taken  amidship 
to  the  outside  of  the  frame. 

Breadth — Extreme — The  greatest  width  of  the  ship  over  the  planking. 
Dub — To  cut  fair  with  an  adz.  Dubbing,  in  general,  covers  the  opera- 
tion of  fairing  up  the  frame  of  the  ship  inside  and  outside.  Used  in 
connection  with  any  work  performed  with  an  adz. 
Fay — To  fit  together.  Faying  surfaces  are  surfaces  that  must  be  fitted 
together,  as  in  scarfs.  To  fay  means  to  fit.  Fayed  means  fitted. 
Both  in  the  sense  that  fitting  means  the  securing  of  good  contact  be- 
tween the  surfaces. 

Fair — Smooth,  without  irregularities.     A  fair  curve  means  a  curve 
pleasing  to  the  eye — without  sudden  sharp  turns  or  humps. 
Inboard — Inside   the   ship's    hull   or   superstructure.     Inboard    side 
means  the  side  facing  inboard,  or  toward  the  inside. 
Midship — The  center  of  the  ship.     Amidships  means  at  the  center  of 
the  ship. 

Molding — That  dimension  of  a  plank  or  timber  reading  from  out- 
board to  inboard. 

Outboard — Outside  the  ship's  hull  or  superstructure.  Outboard  side 
means  the  side  facing  outboard,  or  away  from  the  inside. 
Rabbet — In  general,  a  recess,  or  groove,  to  receive  the  edges  or  ends  of 
planking,  siding,  etc.  A  rabbet  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  small 
surface  squared  off  to  receive  a  plank  edge  as  in  Fig.  28. 
The  rabbet  in  general  is  marked  out  by  three  lines,  namely:  The 
outer  rabbet  line,  the  inner  rabbet  line,  and  the  bearding  line.  See 
Figs.  29  and  30,  The  surface  between  the  inner  and  outer  rabbet 
lines  is  called  the  rabbet.  The  surface  between  the  inner  rabbet  line 
and  the  bearding  line  is  called  the  bearding. 

When  the  plank  next  to  the  keel,  or  the  garboard,  as  it  is  called,  is 
very  thick,  and  the  keel  rather  narrow  in  siding,  a  back  rabbet  is  cut 
near  the  ends  of  the  ship,  to  keep  from  cutting  in  too  far  in  on  the  keel. 
The  principal  object  of  the  rabbet  as  used  on  a  ship's  hull  is  to  protect 
the  plank  ends  and  permit  calking.  Therefore  the  rabbet  must  be 
nearly  square  with  the  surface  of  the  plank  fitting  into  it. 
Scantlings — A  term  used  in  referring  to  the  sizes  of  the  various  timbers 
comprising  the  ship's  structure.  The  expression  "Light  scantling 
ship"  means  a  ship  with  light  timbers,  etc. 

Siding — The  dimension  of  a  timber  reading  opposite  to  the  molding. 
Example:  Keel  sided  18  in.,  molded  24  in.,  means  a  keel  having  a  depth 
of  24  in.  and  a  width  athwartship  of  18  in. 

Scribe — To  mark  one  timber  off  against  another,  so  that  when  the  first 
timber  is  cut  to  the  marks  it  will  fit  the  second  timber. 


28      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


V/ARIOUS  FORMS  OF  RABBETS 

USED  OW  SHIPS 


OUTER  fiABB£T  UIJl 


FIGURE'gfl  AS  ON  KEEL 


BEAR  DING  LINE 
BMBET 


OUTEI^  fjABBET  UljE 
JNNER  /MBBET  LINE 


FIGURE-gg  /IS ON  STEM 


FIGURE-JO^soNRtM 


RABBET 


FIGURE'JI   DOOR  JAMB 

IN  JCIHER  WORK 


FIGURE*32  CORNER  STANCHION 


IM  JOINER  tVORK 


KEELS,  STEMS  AND  STERN  POSTS  29 


COMMON  FORMS  OF  SCARFS 


FIGURE-33    PLAIN  SCARF 


^  J 


FIGURE-34  HOOKED  scarf 


Fi(5URE*35  KEY  LOCKED  SCARF 


FIGURE-36  KEY  LOCKED  HOOK  SCARF 


f i 

FiGURE'37  WEDGES 


30      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

Ship — To  place  or  mount  on  the  ship.  Shipping  a  rudder  means  plac- 
ing the  rudder  in  its  position  on  the  ship.  Contrariwise  to  unship 
anything,  means  to  take  it  from  its  position  on  the  ship. 
Scarf — To  join  together  with  an  overlap.  Joints  between  timbers,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  33  to  36  inclusive.  These  figures  show  the  four  principal 
forms  of  scarfs  used  in  shipbuilding.  Several  modifications  of  these 
forms  are  also  used,  which  will  be  shown  later  on. 
Timbers  are  scarfed  to  secure  strength  and  it  is  therefor  important 
that  the  proportions  of  the  scarf  be  correct.  The  length  should  not  be 
less  than  six  times  the  depth,  the  depth  being  measured  as  indicated  by 
the  letter  D  in  the  figures. 

The  nib  should  be  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  depth  "  D."  The  following 
formula  will  be  found  to  give  excellent  proportions  for  all  ordinary 
scarfs. 

Let     D  =  Depth  of  Scarf. 
L  =  Length  of  Scarf. 
N  =  Depth  of  Nib. 
K  =  Width  of  Key. 

Then  L  =  6  X  D 

D 

N  =  -g^  +  1  in.,  where  D  is  8  in.  or  more. 


N  =  X  where  D  is  less  than  8  in. 


K=4 

Keys  for  keyed  scarfs  are  made  of  hardwood.  They  should  be  made 
in  two  pieces,  wedge  shaped,  with  a  taper  of  about  >^  inch  to  the  foot, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  and  should  be  driven  simultaneously  from  each  side 
of  the  timber  until  very  tight,  then  sawed  off  flush  and  wedged  at  the 
small  ends  so  that  they  cannot  possibly  back  out. 
Flat  and  Edge  Scarf — A  scarf  is  called  flat  when  the  depth,  or  dimen- 
sion D,  reads  across  the  edge,  or  narrow  face  of  the  timber. 
An  edge  scarf  is  one  where  the  dimension  D  reads  across  the  side,  or 
wide  face  of  the  timber. 


FOREWORD  TO  CHAPTER  II 

As  nearly  as  possible,  in  these  chapters,  the  various 
features  of  the  ship  will  be  discussed  in  their  order  of 
erection,  or  emplacement,  upon  the  vessel.  This  is  not 
altogether  possible,  as  many  items  may  be  in  the  course 
of  preparation  at  the  same  time. 

In  the  first  chapter  keels,  stems,  stern-  and  rudder- 
posts,  and  shaft-logs  were  discussed  in  general,  and  while 
the  keel  is  the  first  item  erected,  the  other  pieces  mentioned 
are,  or  should  be,  in  the  course  of  preparation  at  the  same 
time.  Simultaneously  with  this  work  the  frames  are  being 
molded  and  sawn.  As  soon  as  the  keel  is  laid  and  prop- 
erly lined,  the  framing  stage  is  set  up,  and  the  square 
frames  assembled  and  erected.  Then  the  framing  stage  is 
torn  down  and  the  stem  and  main  stern-frame  are  erected 
and  shored  in  position.  Fitting  the  half-frames  and  cants 
then  completes  the  vessel's  frame,  but  before  this  can  be 
done  the  keelsons  must  have  been  laid  and  all  the  dead- 
woods  placed  and  fastened.  Keelsons  will  be  discussed  in 
the  next  chapter. 

In  this  chapter  various  features  of  the  vessel's  frame 
are  discussed.  While  several  types  of  frames  are  shown, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  many  variations 
which  may  be  used  without  changing  the  principles 
involved. 

Tabulation  of  the  Order  of  Procedure  to  Complete  the  Frame 

Main  Operation  Coincident  Operation 

Setting  of  keel  blocks.  Preparation  of  keel. 

Laying  of  keel.  Molding  and  sawing  of  frames. 

Erection  of  framing  stage.  Preparation    of    stem    structure, 

Assembling    and    erecting  square-  stern-post,    rudder-post,    and 

frames.  stern-frame  parts. 

Erection  of  stem  structure,  stern-  Preparation   of   main   and   sister 

post  and  stern-frame  parts.  keelsons. 

Laying  of  main  keelsons.  Assembly  of  half  frames  or  cants. 
Erection  of  cants  and  half  frames. 

31 


CHAPTER  II 
FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 

All  ship  frames  are  usually  built  double,  that  is,  of  two 
tiers  of  timbers,  so  arranged  that  the  timbers  of  one  tier 
overlap  the  butts  of  the  timbers  in  the  other  tier.  The 
various  timbers  of  the  frame  are  sawn  to  proper  shape  and 
bevel  from  stock  called  ^'flitch."  Flitch  may  be  ordered 
rough  sawn,  or  planed  on  one  or  both  sides.  Planed  flitch 
is  coming  more  into  use,  as  it  is  easier  to  mold  and  work. 

It  will  be  remembered  then  that  a  frame  consists  of  two 
tiers  of  timbers,  and  that  when  we  speak  of  a  timber  in 
general  reference  to  the  frame,  we  mean  one-half  of  the 
frame  at  the  point  under  discussion.  For  instance,  if 
plank  fastening  were  specified  two  fastenings  per  timber,  it 
would  mean  four  to  each  frame. 

For  purposes  of  identification  in  working  and  assembling, 
the  various  timbers  of  the  frame  have  been  named.  Refer- 
ring to  Fig.  38  it  will  be  seen  that  the  timbers  crossing  the 
keel  are  called  floors.  The  uppermost  timbers  are  called 
top  timbers  and  the  timbers  between  the  floors  and  the 
top  timbers  are  called  futtocks.  When  a  vessel  has  a 
bulwark  where  only  one  timber  extends  above  the  deck, 
this  timber  becomes  a  stanchion.  Then  there  will  be  floors, 
futtocks,  top  timbers  and  stanchions,  all  in  the  same 
frame. 

Inasmuch  as  half  frames  and  cants  do  not  cross  the  keel 
they  have  no  floors  and  will  consist  of  futtocks  and  top 
timbers  only. 

The  futtocks  are  numbered,  beginning  with  No.  1  for 
the  futtock  abutting  the  floor  nearest  the  center  line  of  the 
ship.  In  half  frames  and  cants  the  shorter  of  the  two 
futtocks  abutting  the  dead  wood  is  called  No.   1.     (See 

32 


FRAMESZIN  GENERAL 


33 


p                                         AOl.  bMOT 

1        <^ 

1                                           dOJ.  XUOH3       1 

■^ 

,,_J 

IK 


ft  . 


u 
UJ 


8 


O 

to 
o 


s^ 


I 


l5 


I 


"O" 


sP 


dO±  *>N01 


rfoj.  xtroHs  ^ 


34      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

Figs.  44  and  45.)  They  are  numbered  theDce  in  order  up 
to  the  top  timbers.  It  will  be  seen  that  on  the  same  side  of 
the  ship  the  first,  third  and  fifth  futtocks  will  be  in  one  tier, 
and  the  second,  fourth  and  sixth  futtocks  in  the  other  tier. 
First  futtocks  or  futtocks  of  the  same  number  may  not  be 
in  the  same  tier  on  both  sides  of  the  ship,  as  will  be  seen 
later  on. 

SQUARE  FRAMES 

Square  frames  may  be  divided  roughly  into  two  types; 
namely,  those  having  long  and  short  arm  floors,  and  those 
having  long  and  short  floors.  Figure  38  shows  a  tjrpical 
long  and  short  arm  floor  midship  frame.  In  this  arrange- 
ment both  floors  are  the  same  length,  each  being  molded 
with  a  short  arm  on  one  side  of  the  center  line  and  a  long 
arm  on  the  other,  and  so  placed  that  the  short  arm  of  one 
floor  extends  on  the  same  side  of  the  center  line  as  the  long 
arni  of  the  other  floor.  The  long  arm  of  each  floor  thus  fur- 
nishes a  lap  for  attaching  the  first  futtock.  While  it  is 
common  in  large  vessels  to  keep  the  deadrise  down  so  that 
the  floors  amidship  may  be  made  straight  on  top  without 
tapering  too  much  toward  the  bilge,  this  type  of  floor  may 
be  used  for  boats  having  considerable  deadrise.  The  top 
will  then  no  longer  be  straight  but  would  have  the  general 
appearance  shown  in  Fig.  41. 

In  this  type  of  frame  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  first 
futtock  on  one  side  is  in  the  same  tier  as  the  second  futtock 
on  the  other  side.  (It  is  customary  to  refer  to  these  tiers 
as  upper  and  lower,  and  for  clearness  hereafter,  timbers 
having  butts  shown  dotted  on  the  plates  will  be  considered 
as  being  in  the  lower  tier,  while  timbers  having  butts  shown 
in  solid  lines  will  be  in  the  upper  tier.)  Then,  keeping  in 
mind  the  location  of  the  tiers,  on  one  side  of  this  frame  in 
the  lower  tier  there  will  be  the  first  and  third  futtocks  and 
a  long  top  timber,  while  on  the  other  side  in  the  same  tier 
there  will  be  the  second  and  fourth  futtocks  and  a  short 
top  timber.  When  the  frame  happens  to  be  in  way  of  a 
well  where  there  is  a  bulwark,  then  the  long  top  timber  will 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


35 


cfOX  ±UOHS         I 


aox  bHO'^ 


o 

0 


^1 


< 

u. 

oe: 

o 

Q 


O 

o 

z 
< 


I 


7^ 


% 


5 


^^ 


_^aX0MOT_ 


dOJL    JC.JIOH8 


36      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  37 

become  a  long  stanchion,  and  the  short  timber  a  short 
stanchion.  Stanchions  generally  are  placed  in  the  same 
tier  on  all  frames.  In  short,  futtocks  and  tops  of  the  same 
number  and  name  occurring  in  the  lower  tier  on  one  side 
of  this  frame  will  occur  in  the  upper  tier  on  the  other  side. 

Figure  39  shows  a  midship  frame  having  long  and  short 
floors.  This  type  of  framx3  can  be  used  only  where  the 
vessel  has  small  deadrise  so  that  the  tops  of  the  floors  may 
be  left  straight.  In  the  figure  the  short  floor  is  shown  in 
the  lower  tier  and  the  long  floor  in  the  upper  tier,  the  exten- 
sion of  the  long  floor  past  the  ends  of  the  short  floor  fur- 
nishing the  lap  for  attaching  the  first  futtocks.  In  this 
style  of  frame,  futtocks  of  like  numbers  and  tops  of  same 
name  will  fall  in  the  same  tier.  Also,  stanchions  will  be 
of  the  same  length  should  the  frame  call  for  them.  Hence 
this  frame  is  much  simpler  to  assemble  than  the  long  and 
short  arm  floor  frame. 

-  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  second  futtocks  in  this  frame 
abut  the  ends  of  the  long  floor  and  that  an  anchor  stock  is 
used  to  fill  out  this  tier  flush  with  the  inside  of  the  first 
futtock  in  the  lower  tier.  This  construction  forms  a  short 
scarf  at  the  bilge,  which,  after  the  ceiling  and  planking 
bolts  have  been  driven  through  it,  tends  to  increase  the 
strength  of  the  frame  at  this  point. 

Figure  40  shows  a  modification  of  the  long  and  short 
floor  frame,  which,  however,  is  seldom  used  because  of  the 
trouble  experienced  in  fitting  the  butts  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  bilge.  Here  the  first  futtock  is  scarfed  to  the  short 
floor  and  third  futtock,  while  the  second  futtock  lands  on 
top  of  the  long  floor.  The  anchor  stock  is  much  smaller 
than  that  shown  in  Fig.  39  and  might  be  more  properly 
called  a  chock.  The  only  difference  between  the  two 
frames  shown  in  Figs.  39  and  40  is  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  butts  around  the  bilge. 

No  matter  what  type  of  frame  is  used  amidship,  as  soon  as 
points  forward  and  aft  are  reached  where  the  deadrise  in- 
creases rapidly,  or  the  frame  assumes  the  general  shape 
shown  in  Fig.  41,  it  is  necessary  to  use  long  and  short  arm 


38      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


39 


LAST  SQUARE  FRAME  FORWARD 


FORZ.CAsriir  OggK- !_.>.,. 


FIGUREl-^g 


X 
1-0 


K 

0 
0 


40      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


rfOJL    PMOTT 


-V 


< 

h 


Lu 
UJ 

as 

< 

-1 


g 


5*C 


2^ 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


41 


HALF  FRAME  &  CANTS 

rOKECASTLS:  OEc>fi_iMK- 


SHORT  TOP 


4.TtfFUTT0CK 


iCFUTTOCK 


Z'SFUTTOCK 
FORWARD  HALF  FRAME  OR  CAWT 


;^SIDE  LINE  OF  OEADMrOOD 

I 
I 

POOP  Pgf  w>  i  .^f^ 


42      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

floors  to  secure  frames  of  the  greatest  strength.  As  the 
last  square  frames  forward  and  aft  are  approached  they 
will  assume  the  general  forms  shown  in  Figs.  42  and  43. 
It  will  then  be  found  best  and  most  economical  to  mold  the 
long  and  short  arm  floors  as  indicated  in  these  figures. 
So  far,  in  all  of  the  frames  discussed,  the  timbers  have  been 
sawn  from  straight-grained  flitch.  In  some  localities,  such 
as  the  coast  of  Maine,  the  bilge  futtocks,  where  the  frame  is 
not  too  large,  are  molded  from  oak  natural  crooks.  On  the 
Pacific  Coast,  where  very  large  natural  crook  fir  knees  are 
available,  the  long  and  short  arm  floors  for  such  frames  as 
those  shown  in  Figs.  42  and  43  are  sometimes  made  from 
knees.  In  this  case  the  short  arms  would  have  butts  square 
with  the  frame. 

MOLDING 

The  operation  of  marking  out  the  timbers  of  the  frame 
by  means  of  patterns  or  molds  furnished  from  the  loft 
is  called  ^'molding.''  It  is  a  highly  specialized  operation, 
requiring  some  knowledge  of  lofting  and  a  systematic 
and  methodical  procedure.  The  molder  must  not  only 
keep  an  accurate  record  of  each  timber  molded,  and  of  the 
number  of  timbers  to  the  frame,  but  must  be  able  to  utilize 
the  ordered  flitch  to  the  best  advantage  and  with  the  least 
possible  waste. 

There  are  two  general  schemes  of  building  molds  for 
frames.  The  first  is  to  have  three  molds  for  each  frame, 
a  floor  mold,  one  mold  from  the  floor  to  and  around  the  bilge, 
and  the  third  mold  thence  to  top  of  the  frame.  On  these 
molds  the  various  timbers  are  marked  and  numbered  or 
named. 

The  second  scheme  is  to  have  a  mold  for  each  timber  of 
the  frame.  These  are  more  convenient  to  handle  and  do 
not  require  as  great  skill  in  handling  as  molds  built  under 
the  first  scheme. 

Slight  variations  of  each  of  these  two  systems  are  also 
often  used. 

Complete  information  for  the  proper  laying  out  and 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  43 

marking  of  each  timber  appears  on  the  molds.  Molds 
need  not  necessarily  be  made  to  full  width  of  the  timber 
and,  in  fact,  are  not  commonly  so  made.  The  outside 
edge  of  the  mold  is  made  true  to  the  shape  of  the  outside 
of  the  frame,  while  the  inside  edge  may  be  scribed  off 
inside  of  the  inner  line  of  the  frame  as  much  as  six  or  eight 
inches.  This  is  done  solely  to  reduce  the  width  of  the  mold 
and  save  mold  lumber.  In  marking  out  a  timber  from  a 
mold  so  made,  the  outer  edge  and  butts  are  scribed  direct 
from  the  mold,  while  the  inner  edge  is  scribed  by  means 
of  a  distance  piece  from  the  inside  of  the  mold,  thus  accom- 
plishing the  same  result  as  if  the  mold  were  full  size. 

The  following  information  is  marked  on  each  mold: 
First,  the  exact  location  of  each  butt;  second,  the  number 
or  name  of  the  f  uttock  or  timber  on  each  side  of  the  butt ; 
third,  the  bevel  at  frequent  intervals  to  which  the  timber 
is  to  be  sawn;  fburth,  the  number  of  the  frame  to  which 
the  timber  belongs;  fifth,  if  the  mold  is  a  floor  mold  it  will 
have  scribed  upon  it  the  center  line  corresponding  to  the 
center  line  of  the  keel;  sixth,  if  the  mold  falls  in  way  of  a 
horning  point  not  on  a  butt,  the  point  will  be  scribed  and 
marked  with  its  number;  seventh,  molds  for  the  lower 
futtocks  of  half-frames  and  cants  usually  have  one  or  two 
waterlines  scribed  on  them  which  should  be  transferred  to 
the  timbers  to  assist  in  placing  the  frame;  eighth,  the  various 
deck  lines  are  usually  scribed  on  the  mold,  landing  in  their 
way,  although  only  the  uppermost  one  is  customarily 
scribed  onto  the  top  timbers  or  stanchions  when  they  are 
molded. 

Timbers  are  always  molded  on  the  faces  that  fit  together 
when  assenibled  in  the  frame,  hence  the  bevel  marked  on 
the  timbers  from  the  mold  will  read  from  the  center  of  the 
frame  forward  in  one  tier  of  timbers  and  from  the  center 
of  the  frame  aft  in  the  other  tier,  and  if  the  lower  tier  carries 
an  under  bevel,  the  upper  tier  will  have  a  standing  bevel, 
or  vice  versa. 

Bevels  on  molds  for  long  and  short  arm  floor  frames 
should   not   be   marked   standing   or   under.     Bevels   on 


44      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

molds  for  single  futtocks  in  frames  having  long  and  short 
floors  may  be  marked  standing  or  under,  but  if  the  mold 
covers  more  than  a  single  futtock  it  is  not  so  marked. 
The  reasons  for  these  rules  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
examples : — 

Suppose  that  the  first  futtocks  in  Fig.  38  are  being  molded 
and  that  the  futtock  in  the  lower  tier  has  an  under  bevel. 
Then  after  molding  this  futtock  and  marking  it  with  under 
bevels  the  first  futtock  in  the  top  tier  on  the  other  side  of 
the  frame  is  marked  out  with  the  mold  same  side  up,  but 
with  the  bevels  marked  standing.  And  likewise  with  the 
third  futtock  and  long  top.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  from 
the  same  face  of  the  mold  or  molds  we  may  mold  all  of  the 
timbers  of  same  number  and  name  and  it  is  not  necessary 
to  mark  all  of  the  butts  on  both  sides  of  the  mold.  Put- 
ting it  another  way,  from  the  same  face  of  the  molds  we 
can  mold  the  top  tier  on  one  side  of  the  frame  and  the  bot- 
tom tier  on  the  other  side.  Since  these  tiers  have  like 
numbered  futtocks  they  need  be  marked  only  on  the  one 
side  of  the  mold,  the  opposite  tiers  being  marked  on  the 
other  side.  With  a  mold  so  marked  it  is  only  necessary 
to  mold  a  given  timber,  once  with  the  bevels  marked  under, 
and  once  with  the  bevels  marked  standing,  provided,  of 
course,  that  the  bevel  is  not  square,  and  no  care  need  be 
taken  to  definitely  locate  the  timber  in  a  given  tier.  The 
same  rule  applies  to  the  floors.  The  above  apphes  to  molds 
covering  more  than  a  single  timber.  If  individual  molds 
are  used  for  each  timber  they  would  be  marked  only  on 
one  side,  and  the  rules  for  bevels  would  remain  the  same. 

For  another  example  take  the  molding  of  the  first  fut- 
tocks in  Fig.  39.  Here  the  futtocks  are  in  the  same  tier 
and  both  will  be  assumed  to  have  an  under  bevel.  Then 
from  one  side  of  the  mold  the  futtock  to  the  right  would 
be  molded  and  marked  with  under  bevels,  then  the  mold 
must  be  turned  over  and  the  futtock  to  the  left  molded 
with  the  same  under  bevels.  Since  the  mold  must  be 
turned  over  for  each  futtock  molded  it  is  necessary  to  mark 
all  futtocks  in  both  tiers  on  each  side  of  the  molds.     And 


•      FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  45 

if  the  mold  covers  more  than  one  timber,  then  from  the 
same  side  of  the  mold  would  be  molded  the  first  futtock 
on  one  side  of  the  frame  with  an  under  bevel,  and  the  second 
futtock  on  the  other  side  of  the  frame  and  in  the  top  tier, 
with  a  standing  bevel,  hence  the  bevels  may  not  be  marked 
standing  or  under  on  the  mold,  unless  it  is  an  individual 
mold  for  a  given  futtock  only.  It  is  also  necessary  in 
this  style  of  frame  for  the  molder  to  fix  the  tier  in  which  the 
first  futtock,  or  any  timber  for  that  matter,  is  located^ 
so  that  he  may  know  whether  to  mark  it  standing  or  under 
bevel. 

From  the  above  the  following  rules  may  be  evolved  for 
molding  frame  timbers: 

(1)  In  frames  where  like  timbers  fall  in  opposite  tiers, 
mold  like  timbers  from  same  side  of  mold,  but  with  opposite 
bevels. 

(2)  In  frames  where  like  timbers  fall  in  same  tier,  mold 
like  timbers  from  opposite  side  of  mold,  but  with  same 
bevels. 

BEVELS  AND  MARKS 

Bevels  are  marked  in  degrees  followed  by  letter  '^U''  for 
under  and  '^S"  for  standing;  ^^2}4  U^^  means  two  and  one- 
half  degrees  under,  and  ^'3  S'^  means  three  degrees  stand- 
ing. Where  there  is  no  bevel,  that  is,  where  the  timber 
is  to  be  sawn  square,  it  is  marked  with  a  cross  in  a  circle 
thus  ® 

The  principles  involved  in  lifting  frame  bevels  from  the 
floor  are  very  simple  and  should  be  understood  by  all  ship 
carpenters,  as  they  are  frequently  of  use  in  operations  other 
than  framing. 

Figure  46  shows  a  section  and  part  of  the  plan  of  two 
frames.  On  the  loft  floor  body  plan  only  the  lines  M-M  and 
N-N  appear  and  the  problem  is  to  determine  the  proper 
bevel  in  degrees  for  the  frame  by  measuring  the  distance 
between  these  lines.  In  this  flgure,  A  represents  the 
distance  between  centers  of  frames,  B  the  distance  at  one 


46      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


FRAME  BEVEL3.BEVE.LB0ARDAUD  STICK 


SECTION-D'D 


PORTION  OrrRAiME. 


F\QVRZ'^G 


-i-L 


riGURE-^7 


"'i""i""i""  I""  I "' '  I ' ' ' '  I I 


FIGURE-4-e 

BELVEL   STICK 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  47 

point  between  the  lines  M-M  and  N-N,  and  X  the  angle 
which  it  is  desired  to  find,  by  measuring  the  distance  B. 

The  first  step  is  to  construct  a  bevel  board  as  shown  in 
Fig.  47  as  follows:  Build  up  a  square  board  having  sides 
somewhat  greater  than  the  distance  between  frame  centers. 
The  board  should  have  a  .smooth  top^  and  be  perfectly 
square,  or  have  a  perfect  square  scribed  upon  it,  in  which 
latter  case  the  scribed  square  is  considered  as  the  extent  of 
the  board. 

Then  from  the  corner  O  draw  a  straight  line  to  the  corner 
L.  This  line  will  make  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 
side  0-P.  Next,  with  O  as  the. center,  draw  any  arc  C-C, 
preferably  with  as  large  a  radius  as  can  be  used  on  the 
board.  Divide  this  arc  between  the  lines  0-L  and  0-P  into 
45  equal  parts.  Then  each  part  represents  a  degree. 
Through  each  degree  mark  on  the  arc  C-C  draw  a  straight 
line  from  the  center  0  extended  to  the  side  P-L. 

The  lines  should  then  be  numbered  from  0  to  45,  begin- 
ning with  the  side  0-P  as  0. 

The  next  step  is  to  lay  out  the  bevel  stick.  Each  dif- 
ferent distance  between  frame  centers  will  call  for  a  dif- 
ferent bevel  stick,  but  they  may  all  be  taken  off  the  same 
bevel  board.  In  this  case  the  distance  between  the  frame 
centers  is  represented  by  the  letter  A,  which  represents  the 
actual  distance  between  the  frames  of  the  ship  where  bevels 
are  desired. 

Measure  in  from  O  on  the  top  of  the  board,  the  distance 
A,  and  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  side  0-P,  or  square  with 
the  top,  until  it  meets  the  line  0-L  at  the  point  F.  Through 
F  draw  line  S-S  parallel  to  the  top  of  the  board  and  square 
with  the  side  0-P.  This  line  between  the  points  F  and  E 
will  be  the  same  length  as  the  distance  between  the  frame 
centers,  and  the  points  where  the  degree  lines  cross  it  are 
transferred  to  the  bevel  stick  shown  in  Fig.  48,  and  num- 
bered from  0  to  45. 

Now,  if  the  distance  B  be  measured  with  this  stick  the 
degrees  of  the  angle  X  may  be  read  directly  from  the  stick.' 
If  the  fines  M-M  and  N-N  are  very  close  together  the  bevel 


48  ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

will^be  small,  if  far  apart  the  bevel  will  be  large,  and  if  they 
are  coincident,  that  is  one  over  the  other  so  that  they  appear 
as  the  same  line,  there  will  be  no  bevel  and  the  timbers  will 
be  sawn  square. 

FRAME  HORNING  AND  ASSEMBLING 

As  soon  as  the  keel  has  been  laid  a  framing  stage  is 
erected  over  the  forward  end  of  the  keel,  as  shown  in  Figs. 

49  and  50.  In  some  yards  a  stage  is  built  at  each  end  of  the 
keel  and  two  framing  crews  are  operated. 

While  the  framing  stage  is  a  temporary  structure,  it 
should  be  strongly  built  and  braced.  The  decking  should 
not  be  less  than  three  inches  thick.  The  deck  is  usually 
laid  over  the  top  of  the  keel,  as  this  makes  it  easier  to 
slide  the  frame  off  the  stage  after  it  has  been  assembled. 

The  stage  should  be  large  enough  to  afford  ample  working 
room  around  the  largest  frames  in  the  vessel.  Sufficient 
blocks,  about  six  to  eight  inches  square  and  three  to  four 
feet  in  length,  are  provided  to  support  and  even  up  the  first 
tier  of  timbers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  49.  A  center  board  from 
12  to  16  inches  wide  and  of  the  required  length  is  fitted  to 
receive  the  two  horning  points  O  and  L.  The  distance 
between  these  points  is  furnished  from  the  loft.  The  top 
of  the  center-board  should  be  even  with  the  top  of  the  lower 
tier  of  the  timbers  after  they  have  been  laid  up  on  the 
blocks. 

In  the  frame  shown  in  Fig.  49  there  are  four  horning 
points  and  one  half-breadth  point  at  the  upper  deck  line. 
The  figure  shows  the  lower  tier  of  a  long  and  short  arm 
floor  frame  and  where  the  horning  points  do  not  land  at  the 
butts  they  are  shown  scribed  on  the  timbers  and  numbered. 
It  will  be  noted  that  three  points  on  one  side  and  one  point 
on  the  other  side  of  the  frame  land  away  from  the  butts. 
This  would  not  necessarily  occiu*  in  all  long  and  short  arm 
floor  frames,  but  in  any  event  where  the  horning  points  do 
not  land  at  butts  they  are  scribed  on  the  timber  and 
marked  with  the  proper  number. 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


49 


FRAME  HORNING  AUD  BUILDING 


FffAMING  STAGE 
WITH  FIRST  TIER  OF  FRAME.  LAID  DOWH 


~|-END  OF 


pC^KLlHg 


n CURE' ^9 


END  OF  KeCU 


.}  BLOCKS 

n  ri — v^t~i    m    >  ■ 


CErtTER  BOARD 


r/GURE-SO 

SIDE.  Y/EtV 


50      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

HI,  H2,  H3,  and  H4  represent  horning  diagonals,  and 
these  may  or  may  not  remain  in  the  same  relative  position. 
In  square  frames  forward  and  aft  it  is  sometimes  advisable 
to  carry  the  horning  points  further  up  on  the  frame,  but  if 
the  horning  points  are  properly  marked  on  the  timbers  this 
will  not  change  the  system  of  horning,  or  cause  confusion. 

A  long  square  pole  called  a  horning  batten  is  furnished 
from  the  loft,  and  has  each  of  the  four  sides  numbered 
respectively  1,  2,  3,  4,  to  indicate  the  horning  diagonal  it 
represents.  From  the  same  end  of  this  batten  are  marked 
the  proper  horning  distances ;  that  is,  on  the  side  numbered 
1,  the  various  lengths  of  HI  from  the  center  0  to  the  outer 
and  upper  corner  of  the  lower  tier  at  the  first  horning 
point  are  scribed  and  each  distance  marked  with  the  number 
of  the  frame  for  which  it  is  to  be  used.  On  the  side  num- 
bered 2,  the  various  lengths  of  H2  are  scribed  and  marked 
in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on  with  H3  and  H4,  all  being 
measured  from  the  same  end  of  the  batten.  A  separate 
batten,  called  the  half-breadth  batten,  is  furnished  for  the 
half  breadths  at  the  deck  and  it  is  scribed  and  marked  in  the 
same  manner  as  fche  horning  batten.  Now,  with  the  stage 
prepared  and  equipped  with  center-board,  blocks,  etc.,  and 
with  horning  and  half-breadth  battens  at  hand,  the  assem- 
bling of  the  frame  will  proceed. 

Assume  that  the  number  of  the  frame  to  be  assembled  is 
10.  The  lower  tier  will  be  assembled  as  follows:  First  the 
floor  is  placed  upon  the  blocks  approximately  in  its  proper 
position.  Then  with  the  horning  batten,  using  the  distance 
HI  marked  for  this  frame,  scribe  arcs  M-M  and  N-N  across 
the  center  board  from  the  horning  points  No.  1  as  centers. 
Note  that  one  of  these  centers  falls  at  a  butt  and  has, 
therefore,  not  been  numbered  in  the  figure.  Where  the  two 
arcs  cross  drive  a  nail.  Next,  with  a  fine  line,  or  straight 
edge,  laid  against  the  nail,  and  on  the  center-line  scribed 
across  the  floor,  draw  the  center-line  shown  on  the  center- 
board,  measure  up  from  the  nail  the  distance  A,  which  is 
furnished  from  the  loft,  and  drive  another  nail.  In  practice 
the  line  is  not  drawn  on  the  center-board,  and  the  distance 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  51 

A  is  measured  along  the  line  or  straight  edge  held  in  proper 
position.  As  soon  as  it  has  been  found  that  the  arcs  will 
cross  on  the  center-board  the  floor  is  dogged  fast  so  that  it 
cannot  move,  and  the  arcs  and  measurements  for  the  two 
points  on  the  center-board  should  not  be  finally  taken  until 
the  floor  has  been  dogged. 

Next,  on  the  one  side  the  first  futtock  is  laid  down  on  the 
blocks  and  brought  into  position  so  that  its  lower  butt  fits 
the  butt  of  the  floor,  while  the  upper  butt  is  shifted  until, 
with  the  end  of  the  horning  batten  held  against  the  nail  at 
O,  its  outer  and  upper  corner  corresponds  with  the  measure- 
ment H2  indicated  for  this  frame.  The  futtock  is  then 
lightly  dogged  in  position.  Next  the  second  futtock  on 
the  opposite  side  is  laid  on  the  blocks  and  brought  into 
position  with  its  lower  butt  fitting  the  butt  of  the  floor, 
while  the  upper  end  is  shifted  until,  with  the  end  of  the 
horning  batten  held  against  the  nail  at  O  the  outer  and 
upper  edge  at  horning  point  No.  2  corresponds  with  the 
distance  H2  marked  for  that  frame.  Then  this  futtock  is 
lightly  dogged  in  place.  Exactly  the  same  procedure  is 
followed  in  locating  the  balance  of  the  futtocks  in  this 
tier  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  top  timbers.  When  the  top 
timbers  are  placed,  the  top  is  shifted  until,  with  the  half- 
breadth  batten  held  against  the  nail  at  L,  the  outer  and 
upper  edge  at  the  deck  line  corresponds  with  the  half- 
breadth  distance  marked  for  this  frame. 

In  placing  the  first  tier  of  futtocks,  if  rough  sawn  timbers 
are  used,  thin  shims  must  be  used  to  bring  the  upper  sur- 
faces even.     Shingles  are  best  for  this  purpose. 

After  the  first  horning  is  completed,  the  butts  are  cut  'in 
with  a  large  cross-cut  saw  until  they  fit  when  the  timbers  are 
driven  together.  With  an  experienced  crew  the  cutting 
in  of  the  butts  will  begin  as  soon  as  the  first  futtock  has 
been  dogged  down.  After  the  butts  have  been  cut  in 
until  they  fit  and  all  of  the  timbers  driven  down,  then  the 
horning  points  and  half-breadths  are  checked,  and  the 
timbers  dogged  fast. 

This  completes  the  assembling  of  the  lower  tier.     The 


52      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

upper  tier  timbers  are  laid  on  the  lower  tier  in  their  proper 
position,  so  that  the  sawn  edges  match.  They  are  then 
lightly  dogged  down  until  the  butts  have  been  cut  in  and  the 
timbers  are  driven  down,  after  which  the  dogs  are  driven 
tight.  The  frame  is  then  bored  and  fastened.  To  hold 
the  upper  ends  of  the  frame  in  position  a  lighter  timber, 
called  a  cross-pawl,  extending  from  top  to  top,  must  be 
spiked  in  place  before  the  frame  is  moved  from  the  stage. 
This  cross-pawl  usually  consists,  of  a  2''  X  8''  plank, 
either  in  one  or  two  lengths,  and  should  be  well  spiked 
to  each  top  with  ship  spikes  driven  through  washers.  If 
the  cross-pawl  is  made  of  two  lengths  of  plank  they  should 
be  well  lapped  and  spiked  at  the  joint. 

Frames  are  commonly  skidded  from  the  stage  to  their 
proper  positions  in  the  ship  then  up-ended  into  place.  For 
this  purpose  a  skid  rail  is  erected  on  each  side  of  the  keel, 
its  top  being  level  with  the  top  of  the  keel,  and  its  distance 
out  from  the  keel  two  or  three  feet  less  than  the  half 
breadth  of  the  widest  frame.  Then  a  shoe  is  built  to  slide 
on  the  keel.  This  should  have  shrouds  to  keep  it  from 
sliding  off  to  one  side.  As  the  frame  is  dragged  from  the 
stage  with  the  yard  winch  tackle,  this  shoe  is  inserted 
under  the  floor.  Just  before  the  tops  of  the  frame  leave 
the  stage  a  heavy  timber,  long  enough  to  span  the  frame 
and  skid  rails,  is  inserted  under  and  across  the  frame, 
a  short  distance  from  the  top.  The  blocks  marked  B  in 
Fig.  49  are  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  top  of  the  frame 
clear  of  the  stage  and  skid  rails  to  permit  the  insertion 
of  this  timber.  Supported  in  this  fashion  the  frame  is 
skidded  to  its  proper  position  and  up-ended. 

FRAME  TIMBER  FASTENING 

Frame  fastening  is  clustered  about  the  butt,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  60.  The  figure  shows  six  fastenings  to  the  butt, 
but  this  number  may  be  more  or  less,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  frame  and  the  location  of  the  butt  in  the  frame. 
In  large  frames  six  or  more  may  be  driven  at  the  floor 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  53 

butts,  six  in  butts  at  the  bilge,  and  four  to  the  butt  above 
the  bilge.  It  is  necessary,  of  course,  to  drive  enough  fasten- 
ing in  the  frame  to  hold  it  in  shape  while  it  is  being  erected. 
Four  styles  of  fastening  are  used,  namely;  hardwood 
treenails,  fir  or  pine  treenails,  iron  drift  bolts,  and  screw 
bolts.  The  screw  bolts  are  generally  machine  bolts  with 
square  heads  and  nuts,  with  washers  on  each  end.  The 
screw-bolt  fastening  is  the  best  for  holding  the  frame  in 
shape,  while  fir  and  pine  treenails  are  the  poorest  for  this 
purpose.  Very  often  a  combination  of  hardwood  and 
softwood  treenails  are  used,  the  hardwood  treenails  being 
used  where  the  strains  are  the  greatest. 

PLUMBING  AND  SQUARING  THE    FIRST  SQUARE  FRAME 

The  first  square  frame  set  up  must  be  squared  with  the 
keel.  Since  the  keel  has  a  declivity,  and  in  addition  is 
laid  with  a  spring,  this  cannot  be  done  by  the  ordinary 
method  of  squaring.  While  there  are  several  methods 
of  going  about  this  problem,  the  following,  as  shown  in 
Figs.  51,  52  and  53,  is  the  best  that  has  come  to  the  author's 
attention.  Figure  51  is  a  view  looking  down  on  top  of  the 
frame,  square  with  the  keel.  Figure  52  is  an  elevation 
looking  along  the  keel,  and  Fig.  53  is  an  elevation  looking 
across  the  keel.  For  the  purpose  of  illustration  a  definite 
example  has  been  taken,  the  problem  being  to  erect  and 
square  the  first  square  frame  on  a  keel  having  a  slope  of  %^' 
to  the  foot,  the  keel  having  a  spring  and  a  taper.  It  is, 
therefore,  impossible  to  square  off  either  the  sides  or  the 
top  of  this  keel.     We  then  proceed  as  follows: 

With  the  frame  set  up  in  approximate  position  and  at  its 
proper  location  on  the  keel,  set  a  straight  edge  having  a 
length  greater  then  the  span  of  the  frame  across  the  keel 
and  24  inches  away  from  the  center  of  the  frame.  Square 
this  straight  edge  with  the  center-line  on  the  keel  and  level 
it  by  any  of  the  methods  well  known  to  carpenters.  Place 
a  nail  at  center  of  frame,  on  each  side,  16  feet  above  the  top 
of  the  keel,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  nail  on  each  side 


54      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PLUMBiNG  AND  gQUARING 

FIRST  SQUARE  FRAME 


EXAMPLE  yyiTH  KEEL.  HAVINQ 
A  SLOPE  OF  %"TO  1-0" 


.     ^  OF  KEEL 


^  OF  FRAME 


FIGURE-g/ 


PLUMB 


LINE 


y 


^ 


STRAIGHT  EDGE 


FRAME       ^ 


^ 


KSZEZU 


Si 


FiGURE-gg       ^' 


STRAIGHT  EDGE 


slope:  f§  to  »:.d" 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  55 

exactly  the  same  distance  down  from  the  deck  line  and  16 
feet  above  the  top  of  the  keel.  From  each  of  these  nails 
hang  a  plumb-bob  with  a  line  long  enough  to  pass  the  ends 
of  the  straight  edge.  From  the  center  of  the  cross-pawl 
hang  another  plumb-bob  with  plumb  just  short  of  the 
inside  of  the  frame  over  the  keel.  Now,  the  nails  at  the 
sides  of  the  frame  are  16  feet  above  the  straight  edge  and 
the  slope  of  the  keel  is  %"  to  the  foot.  The  slope  in  16  feet 
will  be  10  inches,  and  the  side  plumb-lines  should  be  10 
inches  nearer,  or  further  away  from  the  straight  edge  than 
the  distance  from  the  straight  edge  to  the  center  of  the 
frame  at  the  keel,  according  to  the  position  of  the  straight 
edge  above  or  below  the  frame.  In  this  case  the  straight 
edge  has  been  placed  below  the  frame,  and  the  distance 
from  the  plumb-line  to  the  straight  edge  will  be  10  inches 
less  than  that  at  the  keel,  between  the  center  of  the  frame 
and  the  straight  edge,  or  14  inches.  Then  all  that  is 
necessary  to  properly  square  the  frame  is  to  adjust  the 
shores  holding  the  fr^me  in  position  until  each  of  the  side 
plumb-lines  is  14  inches  away  from  the  straight  edge, 
and  the  center  plumb-bob  hangs  directly  on  the  center-line 
of  the  keel. 

This  frame  must  be  very  rigidly  shored  in  position.  Then 
the  balance  of  the  frames  are  spaced  from  it  with  a  space- 
stick  reaching  from  center  to  center.  If  the  spacing  is  care- 
fully done  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  make  further  checks 
for  plumbing  and  squaring,  but  it  is  usually  advisable  to 
plumb  and  square  by  the  above  method  at  least  three 
frames  having  some  distance  between  them;  that  is,  the 
last  square-frame  at  each  end  and  one  at  the  midship. 

All  frames,  as  soon  as  erected  on  the  keel,  are  plumbed 
and  spaced  from  the  last  frame  and  fitted  with  bilge  shores 
and  cleats  to  hold  them  plumb  and  at  proper  space.  Some- 
times two  sets  of  bilge  shores  are  fitted.  As  soon  as  a 
number  of  the  square-frames  are  up  the  ribbanding  should 
be  begun.  Ribbands  should  be  heavy  enough  and  close 
enough  together  to  properly  bring  the  frames  into  align- 
ment.    Of  course  no  amount  of  ribbanding  can  bring^a 


56      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


HARPINS  AT  BOW 


EMLAWGEP 


HARPIH 


RABBET 


30  FT.  WATER  LIME 


16'FT.  WATER  LIHK. 


FIGURE-54 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  57 

poorly  molded  and  assembled  frame  into  alignment,  but 
with  a  frame  well  built  good  ribbands  will  greatly  reduce 
the  amount  of  dubbing.  Ribbands  should  be  fastened  with 
ship  spikes  driven  through  washers  or  clinch  rings,  so  that 
when  the  ribbands  are  pulled  off  the  spikes  will  come  with 
them. 

HALF  FRAMES  AND  CANTS 

When  the  square-frames  have  been  set  up,  the  stem  and 
main  stern-frames  are  then  erected  and  the  keelsons  and 
deadwood  put  down  and  fastened,  after  which  the  half 
frames  or  cants  are  set  up,  thus  completing  the  frame. 

Half  frames  and  cants  are  assembled  on  small  platforms 
to  one  side  of  the  ship,  and  since  they  are  in  separate  halves 
horning  and  half-breadth  battens  cannot  be  used.  To  as- 
semble the  lower  tier  to  the  proper  shape,  the  timbers  are 
placed  on  the  platform  in  their  proper  order  and  shifted 
until  they  fit  the  mold  from  which  they  were  marked  out. 
This  tier  is  dogged  down,  the  butts  cut  in,  and  then  refaired 
and  dogged  fast  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  square- 
frames.  The  top  tier  is  also  handled  in  the  same  way  as 
described  for  the  top  tier  in  square-frames. 

To  assist  in  placing  half  frames  or  cants,  curved  timbers 
called  harpins  are  used.  For  the  bow  they  extend  from  the 
stem  to  and  past  the  last  square-frame,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
54.  For  the  stern  they  will  extend  from  the  knuckle,  rim, 
or  last  transom  frame,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  and  past  the 
last  square-frame.  In  either  case  they  follow  the  true 
shape  of  the  vessel.  Molds  for  these  harpins  are  furnished 
from  the  loft  and  they  are  usually  sawn  to  shape  from 
straight  grained  timber. 

At  the  bow  harpins  are  usually  set  on  a  water-line,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  54.  At  the  stern  they  are  set  on  a  buttock 
line.  Putting  it  another  way,  the  harpins  at  the  bow  will 
curve  in  a  horizontal  direction  only,  while  those  at  the  stern 
will  curve  in  a  vertical  direction  only. 

The  frame  centers  should  be  marked  on  each  harpin,  as 
this  will  avoid  the  trouble  of  spacing  around  the  curve  of 


58      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  59 

the  bow  and  stern.  With  the  harpins  in  place,  forming  a 
cradle  in  which  the  half  frame  or  cant  may- rest,  the  fitting 
of  the  heels  of  these  frames  remains  as  the  only  troublesome 
task.  In  some  yards  where  the  heels  are  dapped  into  the 
deadwood,  the  mold  is  set  up  in  the  position  of  the  frame 
after  the  dap  has  been  cut  and  the  heel  of  the  mold  corrected, 
after  which  the  heel  of  the  frame  may  be  corrected  very 
accurately  before  the  frame  is  slung  into  position.  Even 
with  this  precaution,  some  refitting  is  very  often  necessary. 

As  soon  as  a  pair  of  half  frames  or  cants  is  in  position 
they  should  be  cross-pawled  to  take  the  weight  off  the  har- 
pins. If  this  is  delayed  too  long  the  weight  of  the  frames 
will  spring  the  harpins  out  of  their  true  curve.  It  is  good 
practice  to  scribe  the  length  of  the  cross-pawls  from  the 
loft  at  a  stated  height,  then  the  frames  can  be  brought  to 
the  marks  on  the  cross-pawl  and  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
spring  of  the  harpin  throwing  the  frame  out  of  proper 
alignment. 

For  purposes  of  illustration,  in  Fig.  54  the  harpins  are 
shown  on  the  16-foot  and  30-foot  waterlines.  lii  practice 
they  may  be  placed  on  any  suitable  waterline.  Harpins 
for  the  stern  are  not  shown,  as  they  involve  precisely  the 
same  principles. 

Figure  55  shows  bow-framing  of  two  types,  cants,  and 
half  frames.  Cants  are  seldom  used  at  the  bow  of  steamers 
but  are  frequently  used  at  the  stern.  This  figure  also  shows 
the  knight-heads  as  usually  fitted  to  a  steamer.  The 
knight-heads  here  are  fitted  to  fill  out  the  bearding  on  the 
stem  so  as  to  obtain  the  proper  room  for  the  planking  fasten- 
ing. They  are  molded  from  single  timbers  and  fit  solid 
against  the  apron  and  stem.  Knight-heads  should  be 
fastened  with  bolts  driven  through  both  knight-heads  and 
apron  and  clinched  on  each  end. 

Where  the  anchor  hawse  pipes  cut  through  the  hull  the 
space  between  the  frames  is  filled  solid  with  a  timber  ex- 
tending some  distance  above  and  below  the  hole.  This 
timber,  or  there  may  be  more  than  one,  is  called  the  hawse 
timber.     Fastening  should  be  kept  clear  of  the  location 


60      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


HEELS  OF  HALF  FRAMES  OR  CANTS 

FITTING  AND  FASTEHINQ 


FIGURE-g6 

PLAIN  FIT 


FIGURE-S7 

DAPPEDFIT 


FIGURE- 


DAPPED  FIT 
LIMBERCD 


}M 


M4 

4 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  61 

for  the  hole.  The  procedure  for  hawse  pipe  holes  also  holds 
good  for  any  opening  to  be  cut  in  the  bottom  or  sides  of  the 
hull  and,  before  the  planking  or  ceiling  is  put  on,  the  spaces 
between  frames  in  way  of  such  opening  should  be  chocked 
solid. 

Heels  of  half  frames  or  cants  at  the  bow  may  be  fitted  to 
the  deadwood  in  three  different  ways,  as  shown  in  Figs.  56, 
57  and  58.  The  plain  fit,  shown  in  Fig.  56,  is  seldom  used 
except  in  small  vessels,  and  even  for  them  it  cannot  be 
considered  the  best  construction.  The  dapped  fit,  shown 
in  Fig.  57,  is  most  commonly  used.  However,  the  style 
shown  in  Fig.  58  has  all  of  the  advantages  of  the  dapped 
fit,  and  the  additional  advantage  of  providing  a  limber  for 
drainage  at  the  ends  of  the  vessel. 

Heels  of  cants  and  half  frames  at  the  stern  are  fitted  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  at  the  bow,  though  structural 
arrangements  may  often  prevent  their  being  dapped  in. 

FRAME  FASTENING 

Immediately  after  a  square-frame  has  been  up-ended  in 
its  proper  location  on  the  keel  a  small  drift-bolt  is  driven 
through  the  center  of  one  of  the  floors  into  the  keel  to  hold 
the  frame  in  place.  These  frames  receive  their  principal 
fastening  when  the  keelson  bolts  are  driven,  as  all  of  these, 
and  there  are  at  least  four  to  the  frame,  pass  through  the 
floors  and  keel  and  are  clinched  on  both  ends. 

On  the  other  hand,  half  frames  and  cants  must  be  fas- 
tened thoroughly  when  they  are  set  up.  Generally,  all  of 
the  bolts  fastening  the  heels  of  cants,  or  half  frames,  pass 
through  the  deadwood  and  opposite  cant  or  half  frame  and 
are  clinched  on  both  ends.  They  may  be  arranged  in 
location  and  number,  as  shown  in  Fig.  57,  and  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  clinch  rings,  or  heads,  are  counterbored 
well  inside  the  face  of  the  frame.  This  is  done  to  get  them 
well  clear  of  the  dubbing,  which  is  very  often  quite  heavy 
in  this  vicinity. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  drive  through  and  clinch  all  of 


62      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


TRANSOM  FRAMES 


J jpeCK  U>ME 


DECK  LIW£ 
RIM  ^"^ 


FJGURE-SQ 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  FRAME  FASTENINGS 


FIGURE- 6  O 


limbe;rs 


SIZE  OF  UMBER 
OSVALVf-a'AS" 


FIGURE-  6  I 


SIZE  or  LIMBER 
U3UALLY-2>yPIAWETEIf 


FIGURE.' eS. 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  63 

the  heel  fastening  for  cants,  particularly  stern  cants,  as  will 
be  seen  by  referring  to  the  radial  stern  cants  shown  in  Fig. 
65.  The  heels  of  these  cants  have  plain  fits,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  56,  part  of  them  being  fitted  against  the  last  half  frame 
and  the  balance  of  them  against  what  are  called  in  this  type 
of  stern,  whisker  timbers.  In  this  case,  to  secure  as  much 
through  clinched  fastening  as  possible,  the  erection  would 
begin  at  each  end  of  the  series  of  cants,  and  the  last  cant 
placed  in  position  would  be  the  one  landing  in  the  crotch 
between  the  last  half  frame  and  the  whisker  timber.  Lack 
of  room  would  probably  prevent  through  fastening  the  last 
three  cants  erected,  but  this  would  be  compensated  for  later 
by  placing  a  thwartship  timber,  called  a  transom,  in  way 
of  these  cants  and  on  top  of  the  ceiling,  which  would  be 
clinch  bolted  through  the  cants  before  the  planking  is  on. 
There  are  an  indefinite  number  of  arrangements  of  stern 
cants  and  half  frames  used,  and  it  would  be  impossible  even 
briefly  to  describe  all  of  them  within  the  scope  of  these 
chapters,  but  there  are  three  principles  which  should  apply 
to  all  of  them,  which  may  be  stated  as  follows:  First,  the 
heels  of  all  cants  and  half  frames  should  be  dapped  at  their 
landings  wherever  possible;  second,  the  heels  should  be 
through  clinch  bolted  wherever  possible;  third,  where  it  is 
impossible  to  through  clinch  bolt  the  heels  of  such  cants  or 
half  frames,  compensation  therefor  should  be  provided 
either  by  the  fitting  of  transoms  or  other  approved  means. 

LIMBERS 

Limbers,  unless  of  special  type,  must  be  cut  in  the  floors 
of  all  square-frames.  If  they  are  of  the  style  shown  in 
Fig.  61,  they  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  floors  have  been 
sawn,  and  before  the  frames  are  assembled.  If  they  are  to 
be  as  shown  in  Fig.  62,  they  should  be  bored  as  soon  as 
the  frame  is  assembled  on  the  framing  stage.  Either  style 
of  limbers  is  generally  arranged  in  a  straight  line  along  the 
middle  of  the  first  garboard,  as  in  this  position  the  limbers 
will  clear  the  garboard  fastening. 

Limbers  are  usually  fitted  with  %''  diameter  close  link 


64      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

galvanized  chain,  one  length  on  each  side  of  the  keel,  with 
the  ends  of  the  chains  carried  up  through  the  ceiling  and 
fastened.  Some  slack  is  left  so  that  the  chain  may  be  pulled 
back  and  forth  to  clear  the  limbers  should  they  become 
clogged.  The  chains  should  be  lashed  in  place  before  the 
planking  and  ceiling  are  put  on.  Then  as  soon  as  the 
garboard  is  in  place  the  lashings  are  removed. 

STERN-FRAMES 

There  are  many  styles  of  stern-frames,  three  of  which, 
being  typical,  are  shown  in  Figs.  63,  64,  65  and  66.  Figure 
63  shows  the  center-line  construction  of  a  stern-frame  that 
is  almost  universally  used  on  small  single  deck  western 
steamers,  called  steam  schooners,  and  Fig.  64  shows  the 
same  frame  completed.  This  construction  is  peculiar  in 
that  from  the  propeller-post  aft,  the  center-line  timbers  are 
so  arranged  that  a  series  of  transom  frames  may  be  fitted, 
thus  securing  great  thwartship  strength  at  this  point. 
One  of  these  transom  frames  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  59. 

These  sterns  are  fitted  with  a  rim,  having  a  rabbet  for  the 
plank  ends,  and  supported  by  the  horn  timbers  and  transom 
frames.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  horn  timbers  extend 
over  the  top  of  the  rim,  to  and  against  the  solid  work 
around  the  stern,  thus  affording  an  opportunity  to  drive 
several  clinch  bolts  through  rim  and  ends  of  the  horn 
timbers.  The  ceiling,  when  laid,  is  also  carried  up  over  the 
rim,  where  possible,  to  and  against  the  solid  work,  and  is 
well  fastened  into  the  rim.  The  top  of  the  rim  is  left 
flat  and  the  decking,  where  the  ceiling  does  not  land  in  the 
way,  is  carried  to  the  solid  work  and  fastened  into  the  rim. 
These  vessels  are  fitted  with  a  heavy  fender  or  guard  strake 
in  line  with  the  rim,  this  strake  being  scarfed  to  the  forward 
ends  of  the  latter,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  solid  work  around  the  stern  extends  to  the  first 
frame  carried  above  the  deck  and  carries  all  of  the  detail  of 
the  bulwark,  rail,  etc.  This  feature  will  be  more  fully 
discussed  later  on. 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


65 


STERN  FRAME 


AS  ON  TVPICAL  SINGLE  DECK  WESTERN  VESSEL 


SIOK  NOI«N. 


INNCR    HOI?N  TIMBER 


SIDE    HORN* 


/agcx    l,IHC 


tNf^EH  HORN  TtMBCR 

HOmi  r/MBER  FtLLER 
OUT-£K  HORN  TJMBCR 


SECT/ON'B'B 


66      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


STERN  FRAME 

AS  ON  TYPICAL  SINGLE  DECK  WESTERN  VESSEL 


ovrrn  face,  of  guai^d  ok  plbnhinq 


ANCHCIt  STOCH 


CHOCKS  BETWEEM 
F/^AMES  70  TAH£ 
PLANK  ENDS 


ALL  rfJAMES  FROM 


HEfTE  AFT  AR£ 
T/fA/fSOM  F/fAAt£S 


BEAnOIN^  LINE. 

FIQURE-SA- 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  67 

The  poop  erection  on  these  vessels  is  often  very  short,  and 
forward  of  same,  in  way  of  the  bulwark,  but  one-half  of  the 
frame,  that  is,  the  stanchion,  is  carried  above  the  deck,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  64. 

The  figure  shows  the  rudder  trunk  stopped  at  the  main 
deck,  but  very  often  this  is  carried  up  to  the  poop  deck. 
Other  details  may  vary  somewhat,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  vessel  and  the  ideas  of  the  builder,  but  in  general  the 
construction  shown  is  typical,  and  forms  a  valuable  basis 
of  comparison  with  the  other  detail  arrangements  of  sterns 
shown  in  Figs.  65  and  66.  The  latter  types  are  at  present 
being  used  on  large  vessels  and  while  quite  different  in  detail 
construction,  both  are  considered  good  for  the  particular 
class  of  vessel  in  which  they  are  used. 

The  center-line  construction  in  Fig.  65,  it  will  be  seen, 
consists  of  a  large  propeller-  or  stern-post  backed  by  the 
ends  of  the  keelson,  shaft-log,  and  deadwoods,  and  support- 
ing by  means  of  two  very  large  natural  crook  knees,  a  false 
rudder-post,  upon  which,  later,  is  mounted  the  bearing  for 
a  steel  rudder.  The  rudder  trunk  is  fitted  and  fastened  to 
the  after  side  of  the  false  rudder-post.  The  lower  knee  is 
dapped  into  the  propeller  post  at  B  to  provide  support  in 
addition  to  that  given  by  the  fastenings. 

On  each  side  of  this  center-line  detail,  is  placed  a  horn, 
or  whisker  timber,  extending  from  the  shaft-log  to  the 
knuckle.  These  timbers  are  slightly  dapped  into  both 
the  propeller  and  false  rudder-posts.  The  space  between 
them  is  filled  solid  with  wood  extending  above  their  top 
edges,  against  which  extension,  later,  the  ceiling  is  butted. 
Aft  of  the  false  rudder-post  this  filler  also  extends  below 
the  edge  of  the  whiskers  to  form  a  butt  rabbet  for  the  out- 
side planking.  Outside,  a  knuckle  timber  is  fitted,  carried 
around  the  stern  until  the  side  becomes  straight  enough 
to  carry  planking  unbroken  to  the  poop,  or  shelter,  deck. 
The  under  side  of  this  knuckle  timber  shows  a  rabbet  for 
the  lower  hull  planking.  The  planking  above  the  knuckle 
runs  parallel  with  the  knuckle  and  the  top  face  of  the  knuc- 
kle timber  becomes,  therefore,  a  seam. 


68      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 
"  STERN  FRAME 

SPECIAL  TYPE  WITH  STEEL  RUDDER 


CHOCKS  BETWEXH 
CAHTS  IN  tVwyo/^ 
KNUCKLE  AND  HIM 


MAIN  O^CK  BEAMS 


^u^LTEmoK  '*<fO.'*SJ^f'^uf-n 


^T<CEK  »r«>6 


F/GURE- 65 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


69 


STERN  FRAME 

IN  VESSEt-  lYITM  WOOD  RUDDER  POST 


OUTSIDE   OF  PLANK 


i^^mw^ 


|5    r« 


SOLIO  WORK 
AROVnO  STCRH 


AU^LTKm   D_gCK  yiHt 


^jlleh-a' 


^  ■•]  !  I  !  i  J  ! 


^  lL' LiJ  Li-j  ^-^^.c.  ^, 

>  / 


ffEfM^OJ^ifAMt  irtt^p 


SI  DC  PieeKS'C 


DOUmUt  STK€LKHKM 


JiN££ 


STCKL.  SIDE.  Pt-trre, 


FIGURE-Se 


70      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

A  small  rim  is  fitted  inside  the  cants  with  its  top  face  on 
the  deck  line,  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  decking. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  cants  and  half  frames  land 
on  the  whiskers/ and  that  they  are  so  molded  that  the  plank- 
ing will  land  on  and  fasten  to  the  outer  face  of  the  timbers, 
while  the  ceiling  will  land  on  and  fasten  to  the  inner  face 
of  the  timbers. 

A  steel  knee  is  fitted  at  the  lower  end  of  the  propeller- 
post  onto  the  keel,  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  keel  a  steel 
shoe  is  fitted,  with  long  side  straps  extending  up  each  side 
of  the  propeller-post,  the  shoe  also  extending  aft  to  carry  the 
lower  bearing  of  the  steel  rudder.  The  side  straps  of  the 
shoe  are  clinch  bolted  to  each  other  through  the  propeller- 
post.  The  lower  leg  of  the  knee  is  clinch  bolted  to  the 
shoe  through  the  end  of  the  keel,  and  the  upper  leg  is  bolted 
through  the  propeller-post  with  bolts  having  nuts  on  each 
end,  the  nuts  on  the  forward  end  being  mortised  in.  These 
mortises  are  afterwards  filled  with  cement.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  shoe  along  the  keel  is  also  well  fastened  with 
heavy  drift  bolts. 

Detail  arrangement  of  fastening  for  the  center-line 
timbers  of  this  stern  is  shown  in  Fig.  67. 

Figure  66  shows  a  center-line  detail  consisting  of  a  large 
propeller,  or  stern-post,  backed  on  the  forward  side  by  the 
ends  of  the  keelsons,  shaft-log,  and  dead  woods,  and  joined 
to  the  keel  by  a  natural  crook  wood  knee.  Aft  of  the  pro- 
peller-post is  a  full  wood  rudder-post  stepped  to  the  end  of 
the  keel,  and  the  space  between  the  upper  ends  of  the  two 
posts  is  filled  solid  with  vertically  disposed  dead  wood  fillers, 
flush  with  the  siding  of  the  posts.  Arch  knees  are  fitted 
across  the  lower  ends  of  these  fillers  to  finish  off  and 
strengthen  the  construction.  On  each  side  of  the  upper 
ends  of  the  posts  there  is  a  horn  timber  extending  aft  to,  and 
supporting,  the  rim,  which  is  here  placed  some  distance 
above  the  deck  line.  Between  the  forward  ends  of  the  horn 
timbers  there  are  several  tiers  of  deadwood  extending  to  the 
shaft-log,  the  lower  ends  fitting  between  the  side  pieces  C, 
which  are  placed  on  top  of  the  log  at  each  side.     The  tops 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


71 


EXAMPLES  OF  BOLTING 

STERN  FRAMES 


rrr 


m 


U 


FIGURE-67 


f  !  I*! 


f  T   t 


a 


^ 


FiGURE-ee 


72      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

of  the  propeller-post  and  fillers  show  cuts  in  way  of  deck 
beams  so  that  they  may  be  carried  through  from  side  to 
side  in  one  piece.  The  sterns  of  these  vessels  above  the 
rim  are  generally  built  up  of  solid  work,  as  indicated  in  the 
figure.  Some  have  been  built  with  radial  frames  extending 
up  from  the  rim  and  mortised  into  the  same,  but  this  con- 
struction is  somewhat  weaker  than  that  obtained  with  the 
solid  work. 

The  lower  face  of  the  arch  knees  is  lined  with  a  steel 
reinforcing  strap  extending  down  oh  each  post  and  well 
fastened. 

Side  plates  of  steel  are  fitted  on  each  side  of  the  keel,  with 
arms  extending  up  on  the  propeller-  and  rudder-posts. 
These  plates  are  fastened  to  each  other  through  the  keel  and 
posts  with  clinched  bolts. 

Fastening  for  this  type  of  stern  is  shown  in  detail  in 
Fig.  68.  Details  for  this  and  other  fastening  discussed 
here,  are  usually  shown  on  the  plans  of  the  ship,  which  may 
vary  considerably  in  detail  arrangement  from  that  shown 
in  these  figures.  Sizes  of  bolts  are  not  indicated  in  the 
figure,  as  they  vary  with  the  sizes  of  the  timbers  and  the 
requirements  of  the  Classification  Society  under  which  the 
vessel  is  being  built. 

GLOSSARY 

Bevel — ^A  term  used  to  indicate  that  one  side  of  a  timber  is  not  square 
with  another  side.  Bevels  in  ship  work  are  referred  to  as  ''standing" 
or  ''under."  See  Fig.  72.  Bevels  are  indicated  from  the  molding,  or 
laying  out  face  of  the  timber,  and  from  this  face  a  standing  bevel  will 
be  outsquare,  and  an  underbevel  insquare. 

Bilge — The  sharp  turn  of  the  frame  between  the  floor  and  the  straight 
side.  A  term  used  in  referring  to  details  located  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
bilge,  as  "bilge  ceiling,"  "bilge  shores,"  "bilge  plank,"  etc. 
Bilge  Water — Water  inside  the  hull  of  a  ship  gained  through  leakage. 
Cant — A  half  frame  which  has  been  swung  out  of  square  with  the  center 
line  of  the  ship.  Forward  cants  would  be  swung  in  a  forward  direction, 
and  after  cants  would  be  swung  aft.  To  cant  means  to  swing,  or  lean. 
Deadrise — The  slope  of  the  under  part  of  the  floor  on  the  midship  frame, 
which  is  straight,  that  is,  that  part  of  the  floor  between  the  keel  and  the 
beginning  of  the  turn  of  the  bilge.  Deadrise  may  be  stated  in  terms 
of  inches  to  the  foot,  or  it  may  be  given  as  so  many  inches  in  the  half 
breadth  of  the  ship.     For  instance,  in  a  vessel  having  a  beam  of  44 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL 


73 


TUMBLE  AND  FLARE 


pi-vie  i.wft 


^PLUMB  ut^e 


FIGURE-69 

SECTION  WITH  TUMBLE 


FIGURE'70 

3CCTION  WITH  FLARE. 


OFFSETS  AND  HALF  BREADTHS 


Uf9¥C 


— A •« — A 


aJ9S£  UfJK 


FIGURE- 71 


BEVELS 


UHDEIt    BKVKL 


STAtlOIHt  gCWt 


FlGURE-72 


74      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 
VARIOUS  STYLES  OF  METAL  FASTING 

FIOURE-73       STi^ND>^RD  SQUARE  BOAT  SPiKE 

FIGURE' 7»      STANDARD  ROUND  BOAT  SPiKE 

-^     I 1-^ 

FIGURE-  75      PLAIN  DRIFT  BOLT 

-^  I —  Z3  ^ 

FIGURE- 76      HEADED  DRIFT  BOLT 

-0-1  -  =10-^ 

FIGURE*  77      PLAiK  BUTTON  HEAD  BOLT 


^^ 


FIGURE'  TS       SWELLEJ)  NECK  BUTTON  HEAD  BOLT 

0  d"    — =^  -^ 

FiQURE- 79       CAf^l?l>^<iE  BOyr 

T^  typ j}J  ^ 

FIGURE-eO      MACHINE   BOLT 


I 


FIGURE- 6/  CLINCH  RING  l/SED  OH  DRIFT WnTOW  HEAD  BOLTI 


FRAMES  IN  GENERAL  75 

feet,  the  half  beam  would  be  22  feet.     If  the  deadrise  was  given  as  a 

total  of  11  inches,  the  slope  would  be  }4  inch  to  the  foot.     The  total 

deadrise  would  be  measured  where  a  straight  line,  extended  from  the 

flat  of  the  floor,  would  intersect  a  plumb-line  drawn  down  from  the 

side  of  the  ship  at  the  deck  line. 

Deadwood — Timbers  and  fillers  along  the  center  line  of  the  ship,  to 

fill  in  between  ends  of  keelson  and  keel,  and  on  top  of  keelsons  forward, 

or  on  top  of  shaftlog  aft. 

Fastening — A  general  term  applied  to  nails,  spikes,  bolts  and  treenails, 

used  in  fastening  up  a  ship.     Various  kinds  of  metal  fastening  used  in 

the  hull  are  shown  in  Figs.  73  to  81,  inclusive. 

Flare — A  term  used  in  describing  a  section  of  the  ship  having  the  general 

shape  shown  in  Fig.  70, 

Half -breadth — One-half  the  breadth  through  the  vessel  at  any  given 

point.     One-half  the  total  breadth  of  any  figure  symmetrical  about  a 

base  line.     If  the  curve  in  Fig.  71  was  extended  on  both  sides  of  the 

base  line  and  was  the  same  on  each  side,  the  distances  marked  offsets 

would  then  be  half -breadths.     Half-breadths  may  be  taken  at  regular 

intervals  in  the  same  manner  as  offsets. 

Half  Frame — Any  frame  set  square  with  the  center  line  of  the  ship,  but 

which  does  not  cross  the  keel. 

Limbers — Small  openings  or  channels  cut  in  the  floors  of  frames,  or  on 

other  timbers,  to  permit  drainage  of  the  bilge  water  to  the  pump 

suctions. 

Offsets — The  distances  at  regular  or  irregular  iiltervals  from  a  straight 

line,  called  the  base,  to  a  curve.     Offsets  are  ordinarily  taken  at  regular 

intervals  and  if  it  should  be  necessary  to  close  space  them  at  any  point 

they  are  spaced  at  some  even  fraction  of  the  common  interval.     See 

Tig.  71. 

Parallel  Body — That  portion  of  the  ship  amidships,  where  all  of  the 

frames  are  of  the  same  size  and  without  bevel. 

Square  Frame — Any  frame  in  a  vessel  which  crosses  the  keel  and  is 

fitted  with  floor  timbers. 

Tumble — A  term  used  to  describe  the  form  of  a  ship's  section,  such  as 

shown  in  Fig.  69. 


FOREWORD  TO  CHAPTER  IH 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  order  in  which 
the  keelsons  and  frames  are  placed  in  the  ship,  and  of  the 
fact  that  the  ship's  frame  is  in  reality  not  completed  until 
the  main  keelsons  are  down.  From  this  point  of  progress 
the  usual  order  of  procedure  would  be  about  as  follows: 
First,  the  dubbers  are  started  to  work  on  the  inside  of  the 
frame.  Ordinarily  this  work  may  be  started  as  soon  as 
enough  of  the  square  frames  are  up  to  permit  ribbanding. 
In  any  event  the  dubbing  should  be  kept  well  in  advance 
of  the  ceiling  gangs. 

Following  up  the  dubbing,  the  first  timbers  to  be  placed, 
after  the  frame  is  completed  are  generally  the  sister 
keelsons.  Then  the  heavy  ceiling  is  started,  the  lower- 
most strake  at  the  lower  turn  of  the  bilge  being  the  first 
put  down.  Where  the  ceiling  is  not  edge  bolted  two  gangs 
may  be  worked,  and  the  ceiling  would  be  started  off  in 
two  places,  first  at  the  lowermost  heavy  bilge  strake  as 
above,  and  again  at  some  point  between  decks,  both  gangs 
working  from  starting  point  upwards. 

Where  the  ceiling  is  edge  bolted,  and  it  is  the  general 
rule  to  use  edge  bolts,  then  the  operation  of  ceiling  must 
begin  with  the  lowermost  strake  that  is  edge  bolted, 
which  is  generally  the  lowest  heavy  bilge  strake,  and 
continue  in  order  thence  to  the  uppermost  clamp,  the 
edge  bolts  being  driven  in  each  strake  as  it  is  run  in. 
Deck  beams  below  the  upper  deck  must  be  placed  as  soon 
as  the  ceiling  gang  reaches  the  deck  line.  Likewise  as  soon 
as  the  deck  beams  are  in,  any  waterways  occurring  on  that 
deck  must  be  run  in  before  the  ceiling  can  be  carried 
upward.  The  running  in  of  the  waterways  usually  calls 
for  the  fitting  of  the  shelves,  in  fact  it  is  usually  wise  to 
fit  both  of  these  items  at  the  same  time  as  the  fastening 
then  can  be  driven  to  better  advantage.  Before  the  shelves 
and  waterways  are  fitted  however,  the  deck  beams  must 

76 


FOREWORD  TO  CHAPTER  III  77 

first  have  been  sprung  to  the  proper  camber.  Beams 
below  the  upper  deck  are  not  usually  cambered.  If  there 
are  no  shelves,  and  hanging  knees  are  to  be  fitted  they  may 
be  placed  as  soon  as  the  beams  have  been  pumped  up 
to  their  camber.  During  this  time  the  hold  stanchions 
may  also  be  fitted  and  ironed  up. 

There  is  no  set  time  for  the  placing  of  the  thin  bottom 
ceiling  and  it  may  be  run  in  any  time  after  the  lower  heavy 
bilge  strake  has  been  placed.  It  is  often  the  last  ceiling 
to  be  placed.  However  it  should  all  be  in  place  before  any 
of  the  planking  is  started. 

Note. — Although  waterways  are  mentioned  in  this 
chapter  it  is  considered  that  they  more  properly  belong 
under  the  heading  of  deck  details  and  they  will  therefore 
not  be  fully  described  until  the  next  chapter. 

It  is  most  convenient  to  construct  the  lower  hold  bulk- 
heads before  the  decking  is  laid,  although  bulkheads 
between  decks  are  not  generally  built  until  after  the  deck 
upon  which  they  rest  has  been  laid.  The  arrangement 
shown  in  the  detail  plans  will  indicate  the  best  order  of 
procedure. 

Pointers,  if  fitted  to  the  ship,  should  be  placed  im- 
mediately after  the  ceiling,  deck  beams,  and  shelves  are  up. 

Tabulation  of  the  Order  of  Procedure  Inboard  Hull  Details 

Main  Operation  Coincident  Operation 

Dubbing. 

Laying  of  sister  keelsons.  Dubbing. 

Fitting  thick  ceiling  at  bilge.  Dubbing. 

Fitting  lower  deck  clamps. 
Setting  lower  deck  beams. 
Fitting    shelves    and    waterways     Setting  lower  hold  stanchions. 

(lower  deck). 
Fitting  tween  deck  ceiling. 

Fitting  upper  deck  clamps.  Laying  thin  ceiling  (bottom). 

Setting  upper  deck  beams. 
Fitting    shelves    and    waterways     Setting  tween  deck  stanchions. 

(upper  deck). 
Fitting  lower  hold  bulkheads.  Fitting  pointers. 

This  tabulation  is  arranged  for  a  ship  having  two  decks,  it  also  being 
assumed  that  the  ceiling  is  edge  bolted. 


CHAPTER  III 
INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 

KEELSONS 

The  number  and  arrangement  of  keelson  strakes  appears 
to  be  within  certain  limits  purely  a  matter  of  individual 
taste  with  the  designer.  There  is  apparently  but  a  vague 
relation  between  the  size  of  the  ship  and  either  the  number 
or  sizes  of  the  keelsons  employed.  The  number  of  indi- 
vidual arrangements  used  is  much  too  large  to  even  attempt 
to  describe  within  the  scope  of  these  chapters.  The  types 
shown  in  Figs.  82  to  85  inclusive  are  types  that  have  been 
used  quite  recently  and  therefore  may  be  said  to  be  of  in- 
terest as  indicating  present-day  ideas.  The  size  of  the 
ship,  as  well  as  the  sizes  of  each  of  the  keelson  strakes  em- 
ployed in  each  type,  are  set  down,  so  that  the  reader  may 
be  better  able  to  follow  the  slight  relation  which  does  exist 
between  the  different  types  and  the  sizes  of  the  vessels 
in  which  they  have  been  used. 

Type  No.  I,  Fig.  82,  it  will  be  noted,  consists  of  a  main 
keelson  with  two  strakes  of  rider  keelsons  above  it,  and  one 
sister  keelson  on  each  side.  Type  II,  Fig.  83,  consists  of  a 
main  keelson  with  five  strakes  of  sister  keelsons  on  each 
side  of  it.  Type  No.  Ill,  Fig.  84,  consists  of  a  main  keelson 
with  one  rider,  and  a  sister  keelson  on  each  side,  each  sister 
keelson  having  one  rider  making  a  six-strake  keelson  set. 
Included  in  this  system  are  the  girder  keelsons,  some  dis- 
tance out  each  side  of  the  centerline  keelsons.  Each  girder 
keelson  consists  of  a  lower  strake  locked  over  the  floors 
and  two  lighter  riders. 

Inasmuch  as  the  keelsons  in  this  figure  are  used  in  large 
vessels  as  are  also  the  ones  shown  in  the  figure  following, 
which  are  very  much  lighter,  it  has  been  deemed  best  to 

78 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


79 


KEELSON   >\RRANGEMENTS 
TYPE-I 


SIT.E.  OF  SHIP 
LCNQTH    OH  KEEL-ISCFT. 
BE/IM    MOLDED     -  36  FT. 
DEPTH -    I'*  FT. 


FIGURE-  82 


SI2.E  or  SHJP 
LCfi<iTM    ON  KEEL-  SSOFT. 
BE/JM  -  EXrft^ME  -    -^4-  FT. 
DEPTH    OF  HOLD  -  /7  FT. 


TVPE-H 


nAfM  KECLSOH  -  go  X  Z4-" 
iVSISTE.R    HEELSOH'/^'klB" 

12!  SISTER    HEELSON-/4-it}4^ 


JSP  SISTER    KEELSON  'iek/€ 
IJTSISTER  KEELSON- fa k/e' 
KEEL'ZOka^" 

S^o^  -^>t  go- 


FIGURE-  83 


80      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

KEELSON  AND  GARBOARD  ARRANGEMENT 
TYPEjn. 

SIZE   OF  VESSEL 
LE/^QTH  ON   H££L  -  265  /^T. 


BEAM- /FOLDED    -       -4^6  FT. 
DEPrH-MOLDED-      26  FT. 


ALL  KEELS0/^S-20kZ0'- 

LtntBER  BO/iffO  HOT  FASTENED 
e'TH/CK  Ce.lLINQ 

qiROER  ffEELSON 
'z-  s  TR/ntes-a}i.t«" 


8  THICK 
CtlLING 


SfHie  -3i<ZO" 


f  fC/tNK 


QAABC/i/ro-6xiB" 
/iZ  GAAB0flRD~/0'ii^J8' 


FASTENING    PLAN 

»■»-  CLINCHED  BOLTS  DUIVEM  IN  LCttVER  STRAHE 
•  -  CLINCHED  BOLTS  ORIVEJ1  IN  UPPER  STRAHt 
*-  -  BLUNT       BOLTS  DRtVEN  IN  UPPER  STRAKE. 


m^^^^r'^y*^^ 


"^^yinf^i 


•^ 


<^. 


<^. 


_.:^^±_* 


If 
•J 


^^ 


FIGURE-  8-f 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  81 

show  at  this  point,  the  keel,  and  planking  arrangement 
next  to  it,  for  each  of  the  types  so  that  a  more  comprehensive 
idea  of  the  actual  relative  centerline  strength  may  be  had. 
As  a  matter  of  interest,  note  that  the  limbers  in  Fig.  84 
are  cut  along  the  center  of  the  second  garboard  strake,  and 
not  in  the  frames.  This  arrangement,  up  to  the  time  of  its 
use  in  these  vessels,  was  not  a  common  one  except  in  yachts 
and  smaller  vessels.  However  it  is  a  good  one,  wherever 
it  can  be  used,  as  it  avoids  cutting  and  weakening  the  floor 
at  this  point.  Obviously  this  style  of  limber  could  not  be 
used  in  Fig.  85. 

In  Type  IV,  Fig.  85,  it  will  be  noted  that  there  are  but 
three  strakes  of  keelsons.  The  outside  planking  is.  laid 
over  two  courses  of  thinner  diagonal  planking.  These 
courses  of  diagonal  planking  cover  the  entire  frame  of  the 
vessel.  The  lower  ends,  it  will  be  seen  in  the  figure,  butt 
against  the  keel,  the  chocks  marked  ^^B^'  being  fitted  in 
the  frame  bays  to  receive  the  end  fastening  at  those  points. 

In  Fig.  84  there  is  no  diagonal  planking.  In  its  place 
there  is  what  is  known  as  diagonal  strapping,  that  is  iron 
straps  extending  from  the  upper  deck  line  down  around  the 
bilge  to  the  floor  heads,  all  arranged  in  both  directions 
diagonally.  This  will  be  more  fully  described  in  the 
following  chapters. 

Essentially  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  84  belongs 
to  the  heavy  scantling  class  of  vessel,  while  that  shown 
in  Fig.  85  belongs  to  the  light  scantling  class.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  principal  differences  in  the  two  arrangements 
although  some  allowance  may  have  possibly  been  made  for 
the  fact  that  diagonal  planking  is  by  many  authorities 
considered  more  efficient  than  the  strapping. 

The  fastening  plans  for  each  of  these  styles  of  keelsons 
are  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  plates  and  are  self-explana- 
tory. In  both  figures  all  clinched  bolts  driven  in  the  main 
keelson,  or  its  rider,  are  put  through  the  keel  and  headed 
up  over  rings  below.  In  Fig.  84  the  sister  keelson  clinched 
bolts  pass  through  the  floors  only  while  in  Fig.  85  they 
pass  through  the  first  garboard  and  are  headed  up  over  rings 


82      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


KEELSON  AND  GARBOARD  ARRANGEMENTS 


TYPE-iy 


SIZE  OF  SHIP 

l.ENGrH    OH    KECC  -ZBSFT. 


M/>IM   KEELSON 'ISy,xSS'AL 
I5T£R   KEELSONS- /SfiklsHt" 


B'PLY'  /^"  DIA^OtML  PL/INK 


SHOE' /Ji^'xesyg" 


FASTENING    PLAN 


«    -     CUMCHEO  SCLT 


-    BLifHT  BOLT 


w 


*ViVK 


e         e 


e         9 
9         9 


FIGURE-  8S 


£Q6i  dW 


5 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  83 

below.  In  both  systems  the  sister  keelsons  are  edge  bolted, 
it  being  generally  customary  to  drive  the  bolts  through  and 
clinch  them.  Their  number  and  arrangement  may  vary 
somewhat  in  different  vessels,  as  also  may  the  other  fasten- 
ing. In  all  cases  detail  plans  are  furnished,  showing  the 
exact  arrangement  of  the  fastening,  and  should  be  carefully 
followed. 

KEELSON  SCARFS 

Keelson  scarfs  are  proportioned  by  the  same  rules  that 
already  have  been  given  for  keel  scarfs.  However,  the 
lower  nib,  when  falling  against  a  floor  where  it  is  concealed, 
is  frequently  made  only  one  inch  deep  instead  of  the  rule 
depth  of  possibly  several  times  this.  The  locations  of 
the  various  scarfs  are  usually  shown  on  the  plans.  They 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  use  the  longest  available  timbers 
and  should  be  properly  shifted  in  the  various  strakes. 
No  fixed  rule  can  be  given  for  the  shifting  of  keelson 
scarfs.  They  should  be  kept  as  far  apart  as  possible  and 
in  no  case  should  any  part  of  a  scarf  in  one  strake  overlap 
any  part  of  a  scarf  in  another  strake  unless  the  number  of 
keelson  strakes  is  greater  than  eight.  Scarfs  in  adjoining 
strakes  should  have  from  six  to  eight  frame  bays  between 
them  if  possible. 

All  keelson  scarfs  are  commonly  made  flat,  that  is,  with 
the  flat  of  the  nib  resting  on  the  floors,  or  keelson  strake 
underneath.  It  is  common  to  speak  of  keelson  scarfs  as 
flat  when  they  are  in  this  position,  even  where  occurring 
in  a  keelson  having  greater  molding  than  siding,  when, 
according  to  rule,  the  scarf  would  be  an  edge  scarf.  It  is 
good  practice  to  so  face  the  scarfs  as  to  permit  the  placing 
of  the  midship  lengths  of  the  main  keelson  first,  thus 
permitting  this  work  to  be  done  as  soon  as  enough  of  the 
square  frames  are  up  to  receive  a  full  timber  length.  There 
will  then  be  no  time  lost  in  getting  the  main  keelson  ends 
down  after  the  square  frame  has  been  completed. 

The  sister  keelsons  are  generally  run  in  beginning 
at  the  bow  and  working  to  the  stern.     The  ends  of  the  sister 


84       ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


KEELSON    ENDS 


SHOWfNQ  MANNER  OF    SNfP/A/Q 
OFF  fOKVW/tfiO  £A^OS  or  SISTER 
/f££LSONS,-AFr£:R  ENDS  /if9£  T/f£/iTSD 
IN   S/t/*f£   At/t/^AfCR 


CEILING 


SISTER  H££LSON 

M/l/N  /fEELSQN 


CEILINQ 


SIS7EFHEELS0H 


MAM H££L30H 


SECTION-B-B 


FIGURE- 66 


A 


w 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  85 

keelsons  forward  and  aft  are  sniped  off  to  fay  to  the  edges 
of  the  ceUing  coming  in  contact  with  them  at  that  point. 
This  is  accomplished  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  86.  The 
ends  of  the  sister  keelsons  may  be  worked  out  from  offsets 
furnished  from  the  loft,  these  being  carefully  checked  ftom 
the  ship  before  cutting  the  timbers  to  exact  size. 

Where  there  is  more  than  one  set  of  sister  keelsons,  as 
in  Fig.  83,  each  keelson  strake  would  be  run  straight 
fore  and  aft,  or  parallel  with  the  keel,  and  the  ceiling  would 
run  across  the  ends  of  the  keelsons  as  indicated  for  the 
one  strake  in  Fig.  86.  Thus  it  will  be  noted  that,  before 
the  final  shape  of  the  ends  of  assistant  keelsons  can  be  laid 
out,  the  ceiling  line  crossing  them  must  be  run  in.  This 
line  is  sometimes  that  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  thick  bilge 
ceiling  as  is  described  further  on  in  this  chapter. 

In  some  cases  the  sister  keelsons  are  cut  off  square  a 
short  distance  from  their  natural  endings,  and  'Hhick 
strakes"  are  fitted,  these  being  about  the  same  shape  as  the 
keelson  ends  would  have  been  if  extended  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  These  short  timbers  are  easier  to  handle  and  fit, 
and  that  is  the  principal  object  in  using  them. 

CLAMPS  AND  SHELVES 

In  general,  there  are  three  arrangements  of  clamps  and 
shelves  in  common  use.  First,  as  shown  in  Figs.  87  to 
89  inclusive,  we  have  clamps  only,  an  arrangement  that  may 
be  used  only  where  a  hanging  knee  is  fitted  under  each 
beam.  Second,  in  Fig.  90,  we  have  an  arrangement  of  light 
shelves  and  clamps,  in  combination  with  hanging  knees, 
the  latter  being  fitted  under  approximately  every  other 
beam.  Third,  and  last,  we  have  the  heavy  shelf  and 
clamp  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  91,  in  which  there  are 
no  hanging  knees. 

Fastening  arrangements  which  have  been  used  are  shown 
in  each  figure  and  are  self-explanatory.  It  will  be  noted 
that  in  all  types  except  Fig.  91  the  fastenings  are  driven 
in  the  middle  of  the  frame  timber.     The  arrangement 


86      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

ARRANGEMEHIS  OF  CLAMPS 
TYPE-I 


9-  Burrow  hZAD  BOLT-CLINCHED  INSIDE 
0-  BUjrON  HEAD  BOLT- CLINCHED  OUTSIDE 
o-  SHORT   BUTTON  HEAD  DRIFT 


DECK  LINE 

m 


vw  ^Iv^ 


FIGURE-  87 
TYPE-g 

BUTTON  HEADED  BOLT  "  CLINCHED  OUTSIDE 
SCREW   BOLT  -NUT  INSIDE 


DECK  LINE 


o  -  SHORT  BUTTON   MC/^D  DWIFT 

Ah     N^     Al^     /^ 


liSij;^*]     IpvvJ)     liy?^ 

FIGURE"  as 


TYPErm 

e-  BLUNT    BOLT -CLINCHED INSIDE 

♦  -  DRIFTS -DRIVEN  THRU  RINGS  INSIDE 


PgCN-  LINE 


kwiiM,  i/\n^  hiJ%  IN^  MfSj:-^^ 


■tT 


•  il 


[i/\f^'\^ 


FIGURE-ai 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  87 

in  Fig.  91  is  an  unusual  one.  The  space  between  the  center 
of  the  timber  and  the  side  is  generally  reserved  for  plank- 
ing fastening  much  of  which  has  to  be  driven  through 
frame  and  ceiling.  Where  both  systems  are  ranged  on 
the  same  line  it  makes  it  very  difficult  to  get  the  planking 
fastening  through  without  striking  iron. 

CLAMP  AND  SHELF  SCARFS 

Clamp  strakes  should  be  of  the  longest  possible  length 
and  scarfed  strictly  according  to  rule,  that  is,  insofar 
as  the  length  of  the  scarf  is  concerned.  Where  the  rule 
lengths  do  not  land  the  nibs  on  the  frames  properly  the 
length  should  be  increased,  not  decreased. 

Scarfs  ;in  clamps  may  be  either  flat  or  edge  scarfs,  and 
if  made  flat  there  should  be  very  little  if  any  reduction 
in  length  under  that  required  for  the  edge  scarf.  Modern 
practice  leans  somewhat  toward  the  flat  scarf  as  all  of  the 
main  fastenings  then  pass  through  both  parts  of  the  scarf, 
while  in  an  edge  scarf  the  edge  bolting  constitutes  the  only 
direct  connection  between  the  two  parts.  Edge  scarfs 
should  have  standard  nibs.  Flat  scarfs  should  have  the 
inboard  nib  of  standard  depth,  while  the  outboard  nib, 
which  should  always  rest  against  a  frame,  may  be  from 
one  inch  in  depth  to  a  feathered  edge.  The  cutting  of  any 
outboard  nib  at  all  in  a  flat  scarf  makes  the  fitting  of  the 
scarf  very  difficult,  and  inasmuch  as  the  outboard  nib  is 
supported  by  the  frame  it  may  just  as  well  be  feathered 
off,  in  which  case  the  fitting  of  the  inboard  nib  and  the 
scarf  becomes  a  very  simple  and  ordinary  operation. 

All  scarfs  in  shelves  should  have  standard  •  nibs.  As- 
suming that  the  least  dimension  of  the  shelf  strakes  is  the 
molded,  or  vertical,  dimension,  the  scarfs  would  ordinarily 
be  edge  scarfs  and  would  have  extra  edge  bolting  as  driven 
in  clamp  edge  scarfs. 

As  has  already  been  mentioned,  the  clamps  should  be 
of  the  longest  available  timbers,  and  it  follows  that  the 
scarf s_should  be  well  shifted.     In  determining  the  proper 


88      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

shift  of  scarfs  in  the  clamps  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
also  the  shelves  and  waterways  as  they  are  also  important 
strength  members  of  the  same  group.  There  should  be  no 
overlap  of  scarfs  unless  there  are  more  than  a  total  of 
eight  strakes  in  the  entire  system  of  shelves,  clamps  and 
waterways.  Scarfs  in  adjoining  strakes  should  have  from 
six  to  eight  frames  spaces  between  them  wherever  possible. 
To  follow  out  the  above  rules  strictly  requires  very 
long  timbers,  which,  in  some  localities  are  not  available. 
The  plans  for  the  vessel  generally  take  into  account  the 
available  lengths  of  timbers  and  therefore  considerable 
variation  from  the  rules  stated  here  may  be  found  in 
practice. 

CLAMP  AND  SHELF  FASTENINGS 

Practice  in  the  method  of  driving  clamp  and  shelf 
fastening  varies  considerable,  although  the  number  of 
fastenings  to  the  frame  is  rather  uniform.  For  instance, 
in  Fig.  87  there  are  four  fastenings  to  the  frame,  two 
button  head  bolts  driven  from  the  inside  and  clinched 
outside,  and  two  driven  from  the  outside  and  clinched  in- 
side. This  is  a  rather  unusual  fastening.  In  Fig.  88 
there  are  again  four  fastenings  to  the  frame,  two  of  them 
being  button  headed  bolts  driven  from  the  inside  and 
clinched  outside,  and  two  machine  bolts  with  nuts  inside. 
This  is  also  a  rather  unusual  fastening.  In  Fig.  89  there 
are  still  four  fastenings  to  the  frame  all  of  which  except 
one  working  fastening  per  frame  are  headed  blunt  bolts 
driven  from  the  outside  and  clinched  inside.  The  working 
fastening  consists  of  drift  bolts  driven  through  rings 
inside.  In  Fig.  90  there  are  four  fastenings  to  the  frame 
two  of  which  are  button-headed  bolts  driven  from  the 
outside  and  clinched  inside  and  two  button  headed  bolts 
driven  from  the  inside  to  within  about  one  inch  of  the 
outside  of  the  frame.  Note  that  some  of  the  fastening 
is  omitted  in  way  of  the  knee.  The  number  of  fastenings 
that  may  be  omitted  in  way  of  hanging  knees  is  governed 
by  the  amount  of  knee  fastening  to  be  driven.     For  instance 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


89 


TWEEN  DECKS  SHELF  AND  CLAMPS 


tVITH    HANGING   KNE.es 


CCIl-ING 
WAJtJi    WAY 


TWECM  DECKS   Bt.AM 


LOCK  ST  R  A  HE. 


MS      K>rt      A«*S        i: 


•  S'  °  I  ^    I    <^  '   °  >   '2 


rf^f^& 


SECTIOH 


]^M  H^  "^Iw^ 

ZLEVATION  OF  CLAMPS 


9 -BUTTON  HEAD  BOLTS  CLINCHED INSIOB. 
O  -BUTTON  Me. AD  DRIFTS  -FROM  INSIDE 

O  -  SCREW  BOLTS 


.^H£LE 


fjwimJi 


( , 


CK/iMFf 


t-.=-.=.i  -^_- 


( 


FIGURE- 50 


III 


mHmn 


PLAN 'UNDER  StPE  OF  SH£LF 


90      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

if  the  lower  leg  of  the  knee  in  Fig.  90  had  eight  through 
fastenings,  then  it  would  be  possible  to  omit  that  number 
of  fastenings  from  the  clamps  in  way  of  the  knee. 

Likewise  if  four  of  the  knee  bolts  are  clinched  bolts,  then 
four  of  the  bolts  omitted  from  the  clamps  may  be  clinched 
bolts.  Obviously  this  rule  must  be  applied  with  some 
judgment  to  avoid  leaving  out  too  much  fastening  in 
in  one  place  and  bunching  it  in  another. 

In  Fig.  91  all  of  the  bolts  fastening  the  clamps  and  shelves 
to  the  frame  are  headed  blunt  bolts  driven  from  the 
outside.  Of  course  a  few  of  these  bolts  must  be  driven  from 
the  inside  as  working  fastening  but  this  number  is  held 
to  a  minimum.  All  of  the  fastening  must  be  set  well  in 
on  the  outside  of  the  frame  to  clear  the  dubbing.  Button- 
headed  bolts  driven  from  the  outside  should  be  set  down  in 
counterbores.  Headed  drifts,  or  blunt  bolts,  may  be  set 
in  without  counterboring. 

Clamps,  like  the  ceiling,  which  will  be  described  later, 
are  generally  edge  bolted.  The  customary  arrangement  is 
one  bolt  passing  through  two  and  one-half  strakes  driven 
in  each  strake  in  alternate  frame  bays,  but  in  many  instances 
bolts  of  the  same  length  are  driven  in  each  frame  bay 
for  at  least  a  portion  of  the  length  of  the  ship.  Edge 
scarfs  should  receive  extra  edge  bolts  sufficient  to  bring 
the  total  number  of  such  bolts  up  to  not  less  than  two  to 
the  frame  bay.  Quite  frequently  more  are  driven.  The 
same  rule  for  extra  edge  bolting  also  applies  to  scarfs 
in  the  shelves. 

The  fact  has  already  been  mentioned  that  it  is  desirable 
to  run  in  the  shelf  and  waterway  strakes  practically  simul- 
taneously. This  is  principally  due  to  the  necessary  ar- 
rangement of  fastening.  For  instance  referring  to  Fig.  90 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  would  be  advisable  to  run  in  the  first 
strake  of  the  shelf  and  then  the  waterway,  before  proceeding 
with  the  other  strakes  of  the  shelf.  When  this  is  done  the 
work  can  be  fastened  as  it  goes  along  which  always  makes 
the  better  job.  Again,  referring  to  Fig.  91  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  waterway  fastening  passes  through  the  shelf 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


91 


AHRAUQEMENT  OF  CLAMPS  AND  SHELVES 

WHERE  HAHdlNQ  KNEES  ARE.  NOT  USED 


WATER  WAyS 


PLAN -SECTION -A-A-SHO>VINq  SCARF 


FIOURE'  3 J 


92      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

and  is  clinched  below.  The  shelves  are  also  fastened 
horizontally  into  the  frame,  as  are  also  the  waterways, 
although  the  bolts  are  not  shown  in  this  figure.  It  will 
be  readily  seen  that  in  order  to  secure  the  best  job  the 
waterways  and  shelves  should  be  run  in  at  the  same  time 
so  the  fastening  each  way  in  each  strake  can  all  be  driven, 
thus  securing  and  holding  the  strake  ''home." 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Toward  the  ends  of  the  vessel  the  curvature  becomes  so 
sharp  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  spring  the  shelf  strakes 
into  place  and  they  must  therefore  be  worked  out  to  shape. 
This  is  especially  true  where  shelves  are  carried  around 
elliptical  sterns.  Very  often  the  shelf  strakes  are  not 
carried  to  the  extreme  ends  of  the  ship.  Forward  they  may 
be  allowed  to  stop  at  the  collision  bulkhead,  aft  they 
may  be  allowed  to  butt  against  an  inside  rim.  As  a  matter 
of  good  design,  while  they  may  be  reduced  in  size  at  the 
ends  of  the  ship,  all  shelf  and  clamp  strakes  should  be 
carried  as  far  forward  and  aft  as  possible.  Tapering 
such  heavy  strakes  as  the  shelves  and  clamps  shown  in 
Fig.  91,  as  they  near  the  ends  of  the  ship,  is  not  only  good 
practice  but  serves  a  very  useful  purpose.  Such  strakes 
if  untapered  are  almost  impossible  to  spring  around  the  luff 
of  the  bow  in  good  shape.  In  the  majority  of  cases  they 
would  be  split  by  the  band  saw  before  attempting  to  spring 
them  into  place.  The  latter  operation  merely  converts  the 
timber  into  two  thinner  timbers  thus  making  it  easier 
to  bend.  Tapering  serves  the  same  purpose  and  has  the 
additional  advantage  of  saving  some  timber  and  weight. 

CEILING 

Heavy  scantling  ceiling  is  shown  in  Fig.  92.  Light 
scantling  ceiling  is  shown  in  Fig.  93.  Since  the  two  figures 
are  the  same  size  and  were  originally  drawn  to  the  same 
scale,  the  relative  proportions  of  the  ceilings  are  approxi- 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


93 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CEILING 

AS  IN  HIAVY  SCANTLINQ  VESSEL  WITHOUT  HANQiNQ  KNEES 


^ 


r'T-T- 


f^AtH  DEC>r  9%AI^ 


EPqE  BOUTS 


^ 


O      O       iTl®      ^  I®      ©      ll       ^^      I®  P      I®      ^ 


Pj5- 


II    I 

11 L 


I© 
•I 


©I 


1    I® 
mi    oil 


2S 


I       I 


TWEEW  PECKS 


~ ^^^ 


CEiLirtg 


T     I 
I      I 


^  '  EA.EV/qT>ON  OF  TtVEEW  DECKS  CEILINQ 


.,  SECT/ON  IN  WAY  OF  SCARF 

mW  f*>^   WW|   MAi  h>M 


^__        O       0 

^-  5 5-o-b- 

O       O                   COO 

j^_.^ o"o--o-- 

O       O                   COO 

Am 

-  b-  b-- 
.o_o._o^ 

)       O       O 

t:::: 

lipJ   My¥ 

v*^' 

PLAN    OF  BOTTOM  CEILING 


O-  BOTTOH  HEAP  DRIFT 

O  -  ME>IDEP   BLUnr  BOUT 
DRiVEN    FWOW  OUT.SIPg 
»NO    CI.IWCHED  OVER 
RiNQS    IHSIPE 


FIGURE"  ^2 


94      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CE/LIN6 

AS  IN  ONE  TYPE    Or  LIQHT  SCAMTLINQ  VESSEL 


MAIN  OeCK  BE>KM<:^  _ 

am.. 


M«*l 

fW|^  i^tM  t*»iw^ 

^r  .r .! 

'  .!  .;   1  xi  XI   I  x!  xi  ^ 

%i-  y ! 

,x     jx      .        jx'"!*     1          X     |x        «1 
X       x!              x!     X          •     xl     x^ 

■%;  !  I 

1"  "Jr-l   1  1  !   1  1  1  % 

^i  !  1 

!    1    ;    1    !    !    !    i    It- 

Jw^'HwyyJ  >rV   HrtyJ  K***^ 

gLEVV\TIOH  OF  TtVEEW  DECKS  CEILINQ 


SECTION    IN  WAY 


tHtyiri    MtfV^   iMMvM 


p>J^fifMilM^i^ 


^ 


.    BuVr 


t^H^MlH^VtW 


VWIWftVH^M^VVW 


O  -  BOTTOM  He  AD  DRIFT- DRtf  EH 
FROM  msiOE  TO  miHIN  OHE 
INCH  OF  OUTSIDE  OF  FRAME 

e  -  BUTTON  H£AD  BOLT  DRIVEN 
FROM  OUTSIDE  AND  CLINCHED 
OYER  RIN&  INSIDE 

K  -  STANDARD   BOAT  SPIKE 


FIGURE-  93 


PL/\N  OF  BOTTOM  CEILINO 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  95 

mately   true   and   afford   a   very   interesting   comparison 
between  the  two'  types  of  construction. 

The  operation  of  ceiHng  properly  begins  with  the  lower- 
most strake  of  the  heavy,  or  bilge,  ceiling,  although  as  has 
been  previously  mentioned,  in  a  vessel  having  the  cross 
section  shown  in  Fig.  93,  where  there  are  no  edge  bolts 
in  the  ceiling,  the  work  may  be  started  at  both  the  lower 
edge  of  the  bilge  ceiling  and  at  some  point  between  decks. 
The  latter  arrangement  is  the  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

CEILING  LINING 

The  lining  of  the  ceiling  is  a  very  simple  operation  though 
requiring  some  skill  and  experience  to  obtain  a  result 
pleasing  to  the  eye. 

The  first  line  to  be  estabUshed  in  the  lining  operation  is 
that  of  the  upper  deck.  The  points  indicating  the  location 
of  this  line,  it  will  be  remembered  are  marked  on  the  top 
timbers,  or  stanchions,  when  the  frame  is  molded,  but  as 
the  frame  has  gone  through  the  process  of  assembling  and 
erecting  since  these  points  were  marked,  they  could  hardly 
be  expected  to  remain  at  exactly  their  proper  height  or  in 
a  fair  line.  Therefore  fairing,  or  sheer,  battens  must  be 
tacked  up  on  each  side  of  the  ship,  care  being  taken  to  so 
place  the  battens  that  they  will  be  at  the  proper  height 
above  the  top  of  the  keel  at  all  points.  It  will  be  found 
generally  that  the  points  previously  marked  on  the  frames 
will  have  to  be  disregarded,  but  they  will  still  form  a  valuable 
guide  for  setting  the  battens.  The  proper  heights  for  the 
battens  should  be  entirely  remeasured  at  a  sufficient  number 
of  points  to  insure  their  proper  location,  after  which  they 
may  be  faired  between  these  points  by  the  eye.  In  general 
the  old  deck-line  points  will  be  found  below  the  true  points, 
due  to  natural  settling  of  the  frame,  and  to  the  shifting 
down  of  the  timbers  when  the  butts  are  cut  in  on  the 
framing  stage. 

In  some  yards  the  sheer  battens  are  placed  on  the  outside 
of  the  hull,  but  in  most  cases  it  will  be  found  best  to  place 


96      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

them  on  the  inside  of  the  frames,  as  in  this  position  the 
eye  can  follow  them  from  end  to  end  of  the  ship. 

Once  this  line  is  established,  the  tweendecks  hne,  or  any 
deck  line  below  the  upper  deck  line,  may  be  lined  out  by 
simply  measuring  down  the  proper  distance  from  the 
upper  deck  line.  These  distances  are  always  shown  on  the 
detail  plans. 

The  line  of  the  lower  strake  of  the  heavy  bilge  ceiling 
is  determined  by  two  conditions:  First,  the  permissible 
am  ount  of  taper  in  the  siding  of  the  bilge  strakes  at  the  ends 
of  the  ship,  and  second,  the  position  of  the  line  should  be 
such  as  to  permit  running  all  strakes  without  spiUng,  i.  e., 
it  should  be  possible  to  edge  set  all  strakes  into  place. 

The  first  condition  is  merely  a  matter  of  measurement 
down  from  the  lowest  deck  line,  the  distances  first  measured 
being  such  as  will  allow  a  reasonable  amount  of  taper  on 
the  hoods.  This  will  approximately  establish  the  line  of 
the  lower  bilge  strake.  Then,  to  find  out  if  the  second 
condition  is  satisfied  a  thin  batten  is  set  along  this  line, 
the  batten  being  allowed  to  ''fly"  at  the  forward  and  after 
ends  of  the  ship.  The  amount  it  springs  above  the  line 
will  indicate  the  amount  of  edge  set  required  to  get  the 
strake  into  place.  An  experienced  liner's  judgment  will  at 
once  tell  him  if  it  is  possible. 

If,  after  this  line  is  run  in,  the  thick  ceiling  does  not 
extend  down  far  enough  to  cross  the  assistant  keelson  ends, 
then  strakes  of  the  thin  ceiling  are  carried  around  on  the 
ceiling  line  to  close  off  this  work.  The  balance  of  the  thin 
ceihng  is  run  straight  fore  and  aft,  the  ends  being  nibbed 
into  the  adjoining  strakes  in  much  the  same  manner  as  will 
later  be  described  for  decking. 

Once  the  deck  lines  have  been  established,  and  the  lower 
line  run  in,  the  work  of  lining  the  ceiling  then  becomes 
merely  a  matter  of  fitting  a  given  number  of  strakes  in 
a  given  room.  By  spacing  off  the  number  of  strakes,  at 
frequent  intervals  into  the  total  room  to  be  occupied  by 
them  the  width  of  each  strake  at  each  interval  is  obtained. 
Then  all  of  the  strakes  for  that  particular  room  will  be  cut 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  97 

the  same  widths  and  tapers.  This  operation  will  be  more 
fully  described  under  '^ Planking.'^ 

The  most  important  single  operation  in  ceiling,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  lining,  is  the  bevel  taking.  There 
are  two  general  methods  of  beveling  so  that  the  edges  will 
fit  together.  The  first,  shown  in  Fig.  94,  can  be  used  in 
any  location.  Here  both  edges  of  each  strake  are  beveled 
off,  each  bevel  being  about  the  same.  The  second  method 
shown  in  Fig.  95  is  where  only  one  edge  of  the  ceiling  is 
beveled,  the  other  edge  being  left  square.  It  will  be  seen 
that  where  the  bevels  are  heavy,  as  around  the  bilge  the 
latter  method  leaves  projecting  corners  inside.  Therefore 
the  second  system  should  not  be  used  where  the  bevels 
are  very  heavy. 

The  total  equipment  for  bevel  taking  consists  of  a  ship 
carpenter's  bevel,  a  bevel  board.  Fig.  96,  and  a  degree 
board.  Fig.  97.  Only  one  edge  of  the  bevel  board  need 
be  straight. 

With  these  tools  at  hand  the  bevel  taking  would  proceed 
much  as  follows:  First,  the  bevel  would  be  held  in  the 
position  shown  in  Fig.  94,  the  handle  being  held  firmly 
against  the  edge  of  the  strake  in  place,  the  blade  being  so 
set  as  to  give  the  correct  bevel  for  the  next  strake.  This 
will  require  some  practice  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
explanation. 

If  the  length  of  the  bevel  blade  was  exactly  the  same  as 
the  width  of  the  strake  for  which  the  bevel  was  being  taken 
then  the  correct  bevel  would  be  obtained  by  setting  the 
blade  hard  against  the  frame.  As  a  rule,  however,  the 
bevel  blade  is  shorter  than  the  width  of  the  strake,  so  the 
blade  should  not  be  set  hard  against  the  frame  but  should 
be  set  in  the  position  it  would  assume,  if  its  length  were 
the  same  as  the  width  of  the  strake  and  it  had  been  set  hard 
against  the  frame.  Thus  it  will  be  seen,  that,  where  the 
bevel  blade  is  short,  it  will  set  out  from  the  frame  at  the 
upper  end,  when  adjusted  to  the  proper  bevel.  The 
amount  of  this  ^'set  out''  must  be  determined  by  experience. 

Second,  the  bevels  thus  obtained  are  transferred  to  the 


98      ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


CEILING  BEVELS 


BeygL  SQUARE 


FIGURE-  S^ 


FIGURE-  9S 


BEVEl,  BOARD 

OUT 

1 

z 

:•'. 

_-. 

...^ 

FIGURE-  36 


DEGREE  BOARD 


FIGURE-  37 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  99 

bevel  board.  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  number  them. 
If  they  are  taken,  say  at  every  other  frame,  and  in  order, 
then  it  is  only  necessary  for  the  bevel  taker  to  remember 
where  he  started  taking  the  bevels. 

The  drawings  show  the  beveled  edges  of  the  ceiling 
fitting  together  for  their  full  width,  but  it  is  quite  common 
to  fit  them  together  over  only  two-thirds  their  width. 
Where  this  is  done  the  line  for  working,  or  sawing  the  timber 
to  bevel  has  to  be  placed  on  the  inboard  face.  Also  in  many 
yards  the  ceiling  is  ordered  dressed  only  on  one  side,  and 
since  the  dressed  side  is  the  inboard  side  it  is  much  more 
convenient  to  have  the  cutting  line  on  this  side.  But  the 
bevel  has  been  taken  for  the  outboard  side,  and  it  therefore 
must  be  converted  into  the  proper  bevel  reading  from 
the  inboard  side.  This  is  a  very  simple  operation  and 
need  not  be  at  all  confusing  if  a  little  system  is  followed. 

Mark  one  end  of  the  bevel  board  '^OUT^'  and  the  other 
end  ^'IN."  Then  in  transferring  the  bevels  to  the  bevel 
board  hold  the  bevel  with  the  handle  pointing  as  at  ''A. ^' 
When  taking  the  bevels  off  the  board,  for  marking  on  the 
inboard  face  of  the  ceiling,  hold  the  handle  of  the  bevel 
as  at  ^'B^'  toward  ^^IN."  If  the  strake  is  to  be  marked 
out  on  the  outboard  face  hold  the  bevel  with  the  handle 
as  at '^  A"  or  toward  ^' OUT." 

The  bevels,  as  marked  on  the  timber,  must  read  in 
degrees,  and  must  be  marked  under  or  standing  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  degree  board  is  about  the  most  convenient 
device  for  converting  the  angles  to  degrees.  It  is  best 
laid  out  as  shown  in  Fig.  97,  and  if  well  made  will  serve 
a  multitude  of  uses  around  the  ship. 

The  widths  of  the  strakes  are  measured  on  the  outboard 
faces,  and  when  they  are  lined,  or  marked  out,  on  the  in- 
board faces,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  amount 
of  bevel  at  each  point  where  the  width  of  the  strake  is 
measured. 

When  ceiling  strakes  are  to  be  fitted  at  the  bilge  or  at 
any  point  where  there  is  curvature  in  the  frame  the  out- 
board faces  must  be  worked  off  to  fay  to  the  frame.     In 


100    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

working  this  face  care  should  be  used  to  take  the  same 
amount  off  each  outboard  corner  so  that  the  bevels  will 
remain  correct.  The  correct  shape  for  working  the  out- 
side face  can  be  easily  found  by  scribing  fids,  or  small  molds 
from  the  frames.  At  the  ends  of  the  ship,  where  the  frames 
change  shape  rapidly,  this  should  be  done  at  frequent 
intervals.  Experienced  men  will  often  estimate  the  shape 
with  sufficient  accuracy. 

All  ceiling  is  generally  scarfed  flat  with  outboard  nibs 
feathered  against  the  frames.  It  as  also  quite  common  to 
hold  the  lengths  of  these  scarfs  to  two  frame  spaces,  unless 
the  depth  of  the  scarf  calls  for  a  greater  length  when 
proportioned  to  rule.  The  inboard  nibs  should  always 
be  of  standard  depth. 

The  scarfs  should  be  well  shifted.  A  common  rule 
is  that  scarfs  in  adjoining  strake  shall  have  not  less  than 
three  frame  bays  between  them,  and  scarfs  falling  on  the  same 
frame  shall  have  not  less  than  three  strakes  between  them. 
It  will  be  noted  that  this  provides  for  a  closer  shift  of  scarfs 
than  that  given  in  the  rules  for  scarfs  in  such  members  as 
the  clamps,  shelves  and  waterways.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  lengths  of  ceiling  timbers,  being  generally 
less  than  the  lengths  of  clamp  strakes,  etc.,  do  not  permit 
as  great  shift  of  scarfs  as  can  be  obtained  with  the  longer 
timbers. 

Ceiling  fastening,  is  commonly  driven  in  the  center  of 
the  frame  timber  as  shown  in  Fig.  93.  This  arrangement 
reserves  the  space  from  the  center  to  edge  of  the  timber  for 
the  planking  fastening.  The  staggered  arrangement  shown 
in  Fig.  92  is  an  unusual  one. 

Most  ceiling  is  square  fastened,  that  is,  four  bolts  to  each 
frame  are  driven,  two  of  them  being  button-headed  bolts 
driven  from  the  inside  to  within  about  one  inch  of  the  outside 
of  the  frame,  and  two  being  headed  blunt  bolts  driven  from 
the  outside  and  clinched  over  rings  on  the  inside.  All 
of  the  fastening  driven  from  the  outside  must  be  set  into 
the  frame  to  clear  the  dubbing. 

In  addition   to   the    above   fastening,    each   strake   is 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  101 

usually  edge  bolted,  in  alternate  frame  bays  with  drifts 
long  enough  to  pass  through  two  and  one-half  strakes.  In 
exceptional  cases  these  bolts  are  driven  in  each  bay.  The 
customary  arrangement  of  these  edge  bolts  is  shown  in  Fig. 

92.  In  Fig.  93  there  are  no  edge  bolts,  and  the  bolts  driven 
from  the  outside  are  button-headed  bolts  instead  of  headed 
blunt  bolts.     This  is  an  unusual  arrangement. 

Thin  bottom  ceiling,  not  over  five  inches  thick  may  be 
fastened  with  standard  boat  spikes.  If  thicker  than  this 
it  should  be  fastened  with  button-headed  drifts  as  shown  in 
Fig.  92.  All  of  these  are  of  course  driven  from  the  inside. 
Fig.  93  shows  thin  ceiling  between  decks  fastened  with 
spikes,  also  thin  bottom  ceiling  fastened  in  the  same  manner. 

In  closing  this  discussion  of  ceiling,  it  may  be  stated, 
in  order  that  the  reader  may  obtain  a  better  idea  of  the 
reasons  for  the  marked  differences  in  the  ceiling  shown  in 
Figs.  92  and  93,  that  the  type  shown  in  92  is  used  on  a 
vessel  which  is  strengthened  with  diagonal  steel  straps  on 
the  outside  of  the  frames,  while  the  type  shown  in  Fig. 

93,  is  used  in  a  vessel  that  is  double  diagonally  planked  in 
the  manner  indicated  in  Fig.  85,  and  which  is  further  rein- 
forced by  a  belt  of  steel  work  in  way  of  the  bulwarks. 

POINTERS  AND  TRANSOMS 

Pointers  are  placed  in  vessels  for  two  reasons,  the 
first  being  to  furnish  additional  stiffening  to  the  hull  at 
the  locality  where  the  pointer  is  placed,  to  aid  in  resisting 
panting  movements  and  stresses,  and  the  second,  to  add 
additional  strength  against  torsional  strains  such  as  are 
experienced  at  the  ends  of  a  ship  when  rolling  heavily 
at  sea. 

There  may  be  from  one  to  three  pointers  at  each  end  of 
the  ship,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  ship  and  the 
designer's  ideas.  Fig.  98  shows  a  single  bow  pointer,  and 
Fig.  99  two  stern  pointers. 

Pointers  are  set  on  top  of  the  ceiling.  They  should  be 
joined  together  at  their  lower  ends  and  should  extend  up- 


102    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

ward  at  least  to  the  first  deck.  At  the  lower  ends,  a  natu- 
ral crook  hook,  or  a  straight  grained  crutch  is  generally 
fitted,  thus  tying  the  two  halves  of  the  pointer  securely 
together.  Figs.  100  and  101  show  characteristic  shapes 
and  arrangements  of  bow  and  stern  pointers. 

Where  pointers  abut  deadwood,  as  in  pointer  ^^B,'' 
Fig.  99,  the  crutch,  or  hook,  is  sometimes  omitted.  If 
fitted,  it  would  in  this  case,  be  formed  from  a  straight 
grained  timber  and  would  rest  on  top  of  the  deadwood. 

Pointers  may  be  cut  from  solid  timber,  or  they  may  be 
built  up  in  laminated  form  as  shown  in  Fig.  104.  As  the 
latter  form  is  much  the  easiest  to  fit  in  place  and  has  fully 
as  much  strength  as  the  sohd  type  it  is  coming  more  gen- 
erally into  common  use. 

Where  the  pointers  are  cut  from  the  solid,  molds  giving 
the  proper  shape,  must  be  lifted  from  the  ship.  The  method 
of  lifting  these  molds  is  shown  in  Fig.  103  and  may  be  ex- 
plained as  follows: 

Since  the  pointer  does  not  vary  in  siding  its  seat  upon 
the  ceiling  may  be  scribed  by  two  parallel  lines,  one  even 
with  the  upper  face  of  the  pointer,  and  the  other  even  with 
the  lower  face,  the  distance  between  the  two  lines  represent- 
ing the  sided  dimension  of  the  pointer.  These  two  lines 
are  indicated  in  the  figure,  as  being  scribed  on  the  ceiling, 
but  the  limitations  of  drawing  prevent  showing  the  ceiling 
while  still  maintaining  the  clearness  of  the  other  essential 
details. 

Now,  at  the  upper  end  fit  end  cleat  ^^A"  against  the 
ceiling  and  in  such  position  that  the  edge  and  corner  ^^C" 
will  set  square  with  the  upper  and  lower  faces  of  the  pointer, 
or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  square  with  the 
molds  shown  in  the  figure.  Then  at  the  lower  end  fit  end 
cleat  '^B^'  so  that  its  edge  ^^C"  is  parallel  to  edge  ''C"  of  end 
cleat  ^'A. ''  Fit  intermediate  cleats  sufficiently  close  to- 
gether to  hold  molds  in  proper  position  for  scribing.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  these  intermediate  cleats  be  square  with 
the  molds,  but  their  upper  and  lower  ends  should  be  in 
line  with  the  corresponding  ends  of  the  end  cleats,  and  each 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


103 


POINTERS  AND  TRANSOMS 


F/GURE-5fl 


SHELTER    DECK_ 


t— 


POINTgR   C"  )} 

LOWER  oecH if  \k  i  hA^rRAHiotA 


INSIPg  tWE  OP  KEEL<ONS.De/<P WOODS,  ETC. 


FIGURE"  SB 
OtNERAL  SHAPE  OF  POINTERS 


EIGJJRE::J£0       ^'^  .^^^    FIGURE-/^ 

GENERAL   SHAPE  OF  TRANSOM 


FIGURE.-    102 


104    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

end  should  land  exactly  on  one  of  the  lines  scribed  on  the 
ceiling.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  length  of  the  cleats  will 
be  the  same  as  the  sided  dimension  of  the  pointer,  or  the 
distance  between  the  two  lines,  and  that  the  upper  mold 
will  be  held  with  its  lower  face  even  with  the  line,  while 
the  lower  mold  will  be  held  with  its  upper  face  even  with 
the  line.  Each  mold  should  be  scribed  on  the  face  that  is 
even  with  the  line. 

The  molds,  which  have  been  previously  roughed  out  to 
approximate  shape,  are  now  set  on  the  cleats  and  scribed 
and  trimmed  until  they  exactly  fit  the  ceiling.  Then  with 
the  molds  tacked  in  the  position  where  they  fit,  scribe  the 
marks  shown  at  edges  ^^C"  at  cleats  ^'A^'  and  '^B"  on 
each  mold.  Note  that  there  are  two  marks  on  each  mold 
at  end  cleat  '^A,''  one  for  locating  the  molds  longitudi- 
nally, and  the  other  for  locating  the  molds  laterally. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  setting  this  cleat  square  with  the 
molds.  At  end  cleat  '^B  "  it  is  necessary  to  locate  the  molds 
laterally  only,  hence  but  one  mark  is  required. 

Now,  by  squaring  a  line  around  the  timber,  corresponding 
to  the  upper  side  of  end  cleat  '^A''  and  gauging  another 
line  around  the  timber  lengthwise  and  corresponding  to 
the  edges  ^'C,"  the  workman  is  enabled  to  spot  the  two 
molds,  each  on  the  proper  face  of  the  timber  and  in  its 
proper  relative  position  to  the  other  mold.  Thus  the 
outboard  face,  i.  e.,  the  face  fitting  the  ceiling  may  be 
marked  out  and  cut.  The  inboard  face  of  the  pointer 
is  scribed  oi*  gauged  from  the  outboard  face.  Very  often 
the  pointer  is  tapered  in  molding,  and  where  this  is  done 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  same  molded  widths 
at  corresponding  points  on  the  upper  and  lower  faces. 
This  will  keep  the  inboard  face  parallel  with  the  ceiling 
in  the  vertical  direction  and  gives  a  nice  appearance. 

Expert  workmen  very  often  fit  only  the  upper  mold,  in 
which  case  the  faying  face  of  the  jointer  is  determined  by 
bevels,  taken  between  the  mold  and  the  ceiling. 

Hooks  and  crutches  are  scribed  in  the  same  manner  as 
will  later  be  explained  for  hanging  knees. 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  105 

In  fitting  pointers  it  is  necessary,  after  the  timber  has 
been  worked  to  proper  shape,  to  spot  bore  the  face  that 
fits  the  ceiUng,  in  way  of  all  bolt  heads,  etc. 

The  operation  of  fitting  the  laminated  pointers  is  so 
simple  that  no  detailed  explanation  is  required,  except, 
perhaps,  to  remind  the  workman  that  the  various  timbers 
making  up  the  pointer  must  be  carefully  selected  for  bend- 
ing. Each  course,  or  lamination,  should  be  well  steamed 
and  sprung  into  place  while  hot.  It  is  necessary  also  to 
fasten  each  course  with  boat  spikes  as  it  is  sprung  in  place. 
These  are  generally  driven  in  way  of  the  frame  bays  so 
that  the  frame  space  will  be  kept  clear  for  the  through 
fastening,  which  is  not  driven  until  all  of  the  laminations 
are  in  place. 

The  bolted,  or  through,  fastening  is  generally  the  same 
for  solid  or  laminated  pointers  and  usually  consists  of  four- 
headed  blunt  bolts  at  each  frame,  all  driven  from  the  out- 
side and  clinched  over  rings  on  the  inside.  These,  of  course, 
like  ceiling  bolts  are  driven  before  the  planking  is  put  on. 
Additional  fastening  is  provided  in  way  of  the  hook  or 
crutch,  this  being  in  much  the  same  proportion  and  ar- 
rangement as  that  described  later  for  hanging  knees. 

Where  the  clamp  arrangement  is  such  as  to  permit, 
the  upper  ends  of  the  pointers  are  sometimes  landed  against 
a  beam,  to  which  they  are  connected  by  a  root,  or  natural 
crook,  knee. 

Transoms  are  generally  located  as  shown  in  Fig.  99, 
though  they  may  be  fitted  abaft  the  rudder  post  as  well  as 
the  stern,  or  propeller  post.  They  are  usually  built  up  on 
top  of  the  ceiling  and  are  located  where  they  will  best 
correct  the  deficiency  of  thwartship  strength  in  way  of  the 
half  frames  or  cants.  A  typical  shape  for  the  transom 
is  shown  in  Fig.  102  and  it  will  be  noted  that  it  is  built  up 
solid  like  a  small  bulkhead.  Transoms  are  thoroughly 
bolted  through  the  ceiUng  into  the  frame,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  bolts  being  generally  driven  from  the  outside 
and  clinched  over  rings  on  the  inside.  They  should  also 
be  well  bolted  into  the  stern  or  rudder  post,  to  whichever 
they  happen  to  be  fitted. 


106    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  107 

HOLD  BULKHEADS 

Hold  bulkheads  in  wood  ships  are  fitted  for  two  general 
purposes.  The  first  is,  to  subdivide  the  interior  of  the 
hull  into  small  compartments  so  that  if  any  one  of  the 
compartments  is  flooded,  through  damage  to  the  hull, 
etc.,  the  ship  will  still  remain  afloat.  The  second  purpose 
is  to  provide  additional  thwartship  stiffening  against 
what  is  known  as  keel  hogging  and  also  against  torsional 
strains. 

Two  types  of  hold  bulkheads  are  in  use,  that  shown  in  Fig. 
105  being  known  as  the  '^diagonal"  hold  bulkhead  and 
that  shown  in  Fig.  106  as  the  ^' solid  log''  bulkhead.  The 
figures  are  practically  self-explanatory  and  will  require  very 
little  discussion. 

It  will  be  noted  in  Fig.  105  that  the  diagonal  bulkhead 
planking  in  the  lower  hold  is  placed  between  two  stanchions, 
which  are  opposite  each  other,  these  stanchions  being 
heavily  bolted  together.  Between  decks,  in  the  same  bulk- 
head, stanchions  are  shown  on  but  one  side  of  the  planking, 
the  lighter  construction  here  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
water  pressure,  should  the  hold  become  flooded,  would  be 
much  less  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  of  the  bulkhead. 
If  there  were  no  decking  laid  on  the  lower  tier  of  beams 
to  stiffen  the  bulkhead  at  this  point,  then  it  would  be 
necessary  to  extend  the  stanchions  on  both  sides  to  the 
deck  above. 

To  insure  water  tightness  two  thicknesses  of  tarred  felt 
are  laid  between  the  courses  of  diagonal  planking,  care 
being  taken  to  properly  break  joints.  The  border  coam- 
ings are  calked  in  the  usual  manner. 

In  general,  the  fastening  will  be  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  diagonal  planking  fastening,  which  is  not  shown, 
consists  of  standard  boat  spikes.  Each  plank  should  be 
well  spiked  not  only  at  the  ends  but  to  each  stanchion  on 
one  side.  Obviously  it  would  be  impossible  to  spike  this 
planking  to  stanchions  on  both  sides. 

These  bulkheads  are  generally  faced  toward  the  expected 


108    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


109 


no    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

source  of  water  pressure,  hence,  bulkheads  forward  of 
midship  would  be  faced  forward  and  those  aft  of  that  point 
would  be  faced  aft.  The  term  ^^face"  as  here  used  is 
taken  to  mean  the  side  of  the  bulkhead  opposite  the  deck 
beam  against  which  it  is  built.  The  bulkhead  in  Fig.  105 
would  under  this  rule  face  to  the  reader's  right,  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  single  stanchions  between  decks  are  on 
the  back  side. 

Solid  log  bulkheads,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  106 
may  be  put  down  without  the  extra  heavy  border  timbers, 
or  coamings,  which  have  been  shown  in  the  figure,  though  it 
may  be  considered  the  best  practice  to  use  these  heavy 
coamings  as  they  afford  room  for  additional  fastening 
around  the  border  which  is  often  quite-  essential.  It  will 
be  noted  that  at  the  side  of  the  ship  the  bulkhead  timbers 
are  not  landed  on  top  of  the  coaming  timbers  as  at  the 
bottom,  but  are  continued  past  them  to  and  against  the 
ceiUng. 

The  arrangement  of  edge  drift  bolts  in  the  bulkhead 
timbers  as  shown  here  is  typical.  Each  bolt  passes  through 
two  and  one-half  strakes.  Those  bolts  at  and  near  the 
bottom  of  the  bulkhead  should  be  close  spaced  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  the  reason  for  this  being  much  the  same  as  that 
for  adding  the  extra  set  of  stanchions  to  the  diagonal 
bulkhead  in  the  lower  hold. 

These  bulkheads  must  be  calked  all  over  and  for  this 
purpose  calking  seams  must  be  run  on  all  timbers.  These 
seams  should  be  smaU,  that  is  not  over  one  and  one-half 
inches  deep  with  a  total  opening  of  about  three-sixteenths 
of  one  inch. 

The  ceiling,  in  way  of  all  bulkheads,  whether  diagonal,  or 
solid  log  construction,  must  be  made  water  tight  either  by 
wedging  or  calking.  Calking  and  paying  heavily  with 
pitch  seems  to  be  the  most  highly  approved  procedure. 

DECK  BEAMS 

Deck  beams  for  weather  decks  must  always  have  a  round 
up,  or  to  use  another  term,  camber.     The  standard  amount 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS 


111 


O 

o 

S 

< 
u 

CO 


r"' 


n 

o 

Hi? 


5 


*-^ 


-(^ 


:» 


1 

k 


/ 


V/ 

Si 

Jo 

fl 

rs 

o 

5 

^ 

k 

^ 

1 

<a 

U 

1 

cc 

S 

D 

* 

o 

S 

iZ 

1 

!« 

u 


o 

I 
U 

D 


UJ 

lZ 


112    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

of  this  camber,  or  spring  from  a  straight  line,  is  one-quarter 
of  one  inch  for  each  foot  of  length  of  the  beam.  In  wood 
ships,  however,  the  amount  of  camber  is  very  often  reduced 
to  about  three-fourths  of  the  standard  camber. 

Only  a  part  of  the  camber  is  cut  on  the  beam.  The 
balance  of  the  required  amount  is  obtained  by  springing 
the  center  of  the  beam  upward  after  the  ends  have  been 
fastened  down  in  the  ship.  This  operation,  while  per- 
formed with  heavy  jacks,  is  generally  called  '^ pumping  the 
beams. '^ 

The  relative  amounts  of  camber  to  be  sawn  and  sprung 
into  the  beam  depend  largely  upon  the  difference  between 
the  molding  of  the  beam  at  the  center  and  that  at  the  ends, 
and  the  length  of  the  beam.     • 

Beams  of  ordinary  proportions  may  generally  be  sprung 
about  one-eighth  of  one  inch  for  each  foot  of  length  although 
this  must  be  regarded  as  very  near  the  limit,  and  it  is  often 
best  to  hold  the  spring  to  about  a  tenth  of  one  inch  per 
foot  of  length.  Thus  a  beam  forty  feet  in  length  may  be 
sprung  from  four  to  five  inches.  The  balance  of  whatever 
camber  may  be  required  will  have  to  be  cut  in  the  beam. 

As  an  example  let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a  beam  forty 
feet  in  length  as  above  and  that  the  required  camber  is 
eight  inches,  and  that  of  this  amount  it  is  considered  safe 
to  spring  five  inches.  This  leaves  three  inches  of  camber  to 
be  cut  in  the  beam.  Now,  if  the  required  molding  at  the 
center  is  fourteen  inches,  and  at  the  ends,  eleven  inches, 
the  difference  between  the  two  moldings  is  thiee  inches  and 
we  may  cut  the  camber  on  this  beam  on  one  side  only, 
thus  leaving  the  underside  straight  as  shown  in  Fig.  108. 
(The  molding  in  this  type  of  beam  at  the  end  is  measured 
at  the  bottom  of  the  hook.  In  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  109 
it  is  measured  at  the  end  of  the  beam.) 

Again,  let  us  suppose,  that  with  the  same  length  of  beam 
and  required  camber,  the  required  molding  at  the  center 
is  fourteen  inches  and  at  the  ends  thirteen  inches.  Now, 
the  amount  of  camber  to  be  cut  in  the  beam  is  three  inches 
and  the  difference  between  the  moldings  is  but  one  inch, 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  113 

therefore  it  will  be  seen  with  a  httle  study  that  we  must 
cut  two  inches  of  camber  on  the  under  side  of  this  beam, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  cut  three  inches  on  the  top  and  still 
maintain  the  required  moldings.  We  will  then  have  a  beam 
of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  109. 

After  it  has  been  determined  what  camber  to  cut  in  the 
beam,  a  beam  mold  is  made  for  the  midship  beam,  having 
this  amount  of  camber.  This  may  be  easily  laid  out  by 
what  is  known  as  the  '^one,  four,  nine  rule,''  as  shown 
in  Fig.  107.  This  is  the  same  rule  that  has  been  previously 
given  for  the  laying  out  of  spring  points  on  the  keel  and 
need  not  be  further  explained  here. 

This  same  mold  is  then  used  for  scribing  the  tops  of  all 
beams  except  those  near  the  after  end  of  the  ship,  where 
the  beams  must  be  flattened  out  in  order  to  fair  the  center- 
line  of  the  deck  into  the  knuckle  or  rim.  If  the  beams  are 
of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  109  then  the  mold  may  be  made 
with  both  edges  cambered  as  required,  so  that  the  beam 
may  be  scribed  from  the  one  mold. 

The  amount  that  the  beams  must  flatten  out  at  the  stern 
to  avoid  a  hump  in  the  deck  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the 
deck  at  that  point  and  the  amount  of  sheer.  Very  often 
the  deck  line  inside  the  frames  is  dropped  slightly  just 
forward  of  the  stern  so  that  the  beams  will  not  have  to  be 
flattened  so  much.  No  rule  can  be  given  for  this  operation 
and  experience  is  about  the  only  teacher  that  will  enable 
the  workman  to  obtain  uniformly  good  results.  However 
it  may  be  stated  that  in  many  cases,  all  of  the  beams 
may  be  molded  and  cut  to  the  same  camber,  the  flattening 
out  at  the  stern  being  gauged  by  pumping  the  beams  to 
a  stiff  fairing  batten  set  in  the  centerline. 

HANGING  KNEES 

Where  heavy  shelves  are  not  fitted,  it  is  the  rule  to  place 
a  hanging  knee  under  each  end  of  each  beam.  This  prac- 
tice is  confined  principally  to  the  Western  Coast  where 
there  is  a  great  supply  of  natural  crook  fir  knees  available. 


114    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PROPORTIONS  or  KNEES 


SQUARE     KNEES 


RGURE-    III 

OUT«SQUAR£  KNEE 


Hi 48" 

\ 

^%J 

J 

/     '*^^ 

:l 

"a-  / 

i¥ 

V 

FIGURE-  112 


FIGURE-  113 


FIGURE-  114 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  115 

They  are  cut  from  the  roots  of  fir  trees  and  are  remarkably 
strong. 

Heretofore  there  have  been  no  rules  for  proportioning 
these  knees  beyond  the  rough  rules  devised  by  the  ship 
carpenters  in  the  yards.  The  author  has,  therefore,  after 
giving  the  subject  some  study,  devised  the  proportioning 
rules  shown  in  Figs.  Ill  to  114  inclusive.  These  rules 
should  of  course  be  used  with  some  discretion,  but  for  the 
great  majority  of  knees  of  the  ordinary  proportions  they 
will  produce  strong  knees  having  a  pleasing  appearance. 

The  short  leg  of  the  knee  is  generally  called  'Hhe  root^' 
and  the  long  leg  'Hhe  trunk '^  as  this  is  the  position  in  which 
the  knee  is  cut  from  the  stump  of  the  tree. 

There  is  no  very  definite  relation  between  the  thickness 
of  knees  and  the  length  of  root  and  trunk.  The  following 
table  gives  the  range  of  proportions  most  generally  used. 


Thickness 

Length  of  Root  "A" 

12  inches 

48  to  60  inches 

10  inches 

40  to  48  inches 

8  inches 

36  to  45  inches 

6  inches 

24  to  36  inches 

4  inches 

16  to  24  inches 

Typical  knee  fastenings  and  the  method  of  scribing  them 
in  are  shown  in  Figs.  115  to  117  inclusive.  In  Fig.  115 
some  of  the  bolts  are  driven  from  the  inside  while  the 
balance  are  button-headed  bolts  driven  from  the  outside 
and  chnched  inside.  In  Fig.  116  all  of  the  bolts  where 
possible  except  the  throat  bolt  are  driven  from  the  outside 
and  clinched  inside. 

The  scribing  and  fitting  of  a  knee  is  in  reality  a  very  sim- 
ple operation,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig. 
117.  The  knee  is  first  roughed  out  so  that  when  shored  up 
against  the  beam  and  ceihng  it  will  stand  close  enough 
everywhere  to  permit  scribing,  or  more  properly  speaking, 
pricking.  Then  with  dividers  held  in  the  positions  indi- 
cated in  the  figure  prick  points  are  made  at  frequent  in- 


116    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


KNEE    PASTE N I N G 


0P\ 


FIGURE-  117 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  117 

tervals  on  both  sides  of  the  knee,  which  when  joined  with  a 
hne  give  the  cutting  hmit  for  a  fit.  In  the  figure  short 
hues  have  been  drawn  to  indicate  the  relative  position  of 
the  two  points  of  the  divider.  Care  must  be  taken  to  hold 
the  divider  at  the  same  angle  at  all  points.  If  this  is  done 
the  knee  can  be  pricked  and  cut  in  at  one  operation  no  mat- 
ter what  the  shape  of  the  ceiling,  or  clamps.  Care  must 
also  be  taken  to  so  adjust  the  knee  for  pricking  that  the 
proper  amount  of  material  will  still  remain  in  the  knee 
after  it  has  been  cut  to  the  prick  points. 

Ceiling  and  clamp  fastenings  should  be  kept  clear  of 
knees,  but  where  they  happen  to  land  in  the  way,  the  faying 
face  of  the  knee  must  be  spot  bored  to  clear  them. 

All  hanging  knees  set  square  with  the  centerline  of  the 
ship,  but  the  inboard  face  of  the  knee  should  be  so  dressed 
off  that  it  will  parallel  the  ceiling  in  the  fore  and  aft  direction. 
This  is  done  by  first  determining  the  amount  of  bevel 
the  hanging  leg  of  the  knee  is  to  have  and  sawing  a  corre- 
sponding bevel  on  the  inner  face.  This  is  not  done  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  strength,  but  mainly  to  give  a  pleasing 
and  workmanlike  appearance  to  the  knee  after  it  has  been 
placed  in  the  ship. 

HOLD  STANCHIONS 

Stanchions,  or  pillars,  must  be  fitted  under  the  beams 
for  supporting  the  deck  above  and  the  cargo  load  that  may 
be  placed  on  that  deck.  The  greater  the  number  of  decks 
above  a  stanchion  or  pillar  the  heavier  it  must  be,  and  the 
more  securely  should  it  be  fastened.  There  are  many 
ways  of  fitting  and  fastening  hold  stanchions  som.e  of  which 
are  shown  in  Figs.  118  to  121  inclusive. 

Hold  stanchions  as  a  rule  are  arranged  on  the  center- 
line  of  the  ship,  one  under  each  beam.  Where  the  deck  load 
is  not  very  heavy  stanchions  may  be  set  under  alternate 
beams,  there  being  a  stringer  to  support  the  beams  under 
which  there  are  no  stanchions,  as  shown  in  Fig.  119. 

When  stanchions  are  set  off  the  centerline  and  wide 
spaced  they  are  called  pillars.     When  set  at  the  corners  of 


118    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


HOLD   STANCHIONS 


JSSAM 


•CAM 


BVTTOM  HlflD 


H££LSOH 


FIGURE' //fll 


FIGURE-  nS 


FIGURE.-  120 


FIGURE-  121 


INBOARD  HULL  DETAILS  119 

hatches  they  become  quarter  pillars.  If  set  out  in  the  hold 
and  away  from  the  hatch  they  are  more  often  referred  to  as 
hold  pillars.  As  before  stated  there  are  many  different 
combinations  and  arrangements  used,  as  each  different  type 
of  ship  presents  a  problem  in  itself,  and  the  stanchions 
therein  must  be  arranged  to  carry  the  particular  loads  exist- 
ing in  the  vessel. 

By  far  the  most  important  detail  of  stanchion  and  pillar 
fitting  is  the  end  fastening.  In  any  type  used  care  must  be 
taken  to  so  arrange  the  irons  and  bolts  at  the  ends  of  the 
stanchion  in  such  manner  as  to  secure  the  greatest  strength. 
Figures  118  and  119  show  two  arrangements  where  there  is 
but  one  deck.  Figures  120  and  121  show  two  arrangements 
where  the  stanchioning  must  pass  through  an  intermediate 
deck.  These  arrangements  would  also  hold  good  where 
the  stanchions  pass  through  a  line  of  hold  beams,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  decking  would  be  left  out.  This 
has  been  done  in  Fig.  121. 

In  some  localities  on  smaller  vessels  the  stanchion  straps 
are  fastened  with  boat  spikes,  but  this  cannot  be  considered 
good  practice  for  large  vessels.  . 

GLOSSARY 

Hoods — The  first  and  last  members  in  a  strake  of  ceiling,  planking, 
etc.  The  forehood  abuts  the  stem  or  apron.  The  afterhood  abuts 
the  sternpost,  rim,  or  after  deadwood.  The  term  hood  end  refers  to 
the  forward  end  of  the  forehood  or  the  after  end  of  the  afterhood  accord- 
ing as  it  may  be  designated,  forward  hood  end,  or  after  hood  end. 
Keel  Hogging — A  term  used  to  describe  the  condition  when  the  keel 
hogs  as  the  rest  of  the  ship  remains  in  apparently  good  alignment. 
The  condition  is  caused  by  weak  floors. 

Luff — As  in  the  expression  luff  of  the  how  which  is  used  to  describe  an 
indefinite  point  about  midway  between  the  stem  and  the  parallel  body 
where  the  curvature  and  flare  are  very  pronounced.  Also  used  to 
describe  certain  arrangement  of  tackle  more  commonly  known  as  a 
watch  tackle. 

Peak — The  space  between  the  last  hold  bulkheads  and  the  ends  of 
the  ship.     This  space  at  the  bow  is  known  as  the  fore  peak.    At  the 
stern  it  is  called  the  after  peak. 
Panting — ^A  term  used  to  describe  the  breathing  movement  that  takes 


120    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

place  in  a  ship's  hull  caused  by  pitching  in  a  heavy  sea.  Panting  may 
be  very  pronounced  at  certain  localities  at  the  ends  of  the  vessel,  par- 
ticularly at  the  bow  just  abaft  the  collision  bulkhead.  Very  often 
extra  beams  called  panting  beams  are  fitted  in  this  vicinity  to  counter- 
act this  movement,  which  is  very  destructive  to  the  hull.  Pointers 
are  also  used  to  overcome  panting  strains. 

Pay — To  fill  a  seam  as  with  cement  or  pitch,  or  to  paint  a  seam 
with  paint  or  oil.     Paying  is  the  act  of  filling  the  seam,  etc. 
Room — Space  in  which  anything  is  to  be  fitted. 

Spile — To  determine  the  shape  of  a  plank  necessary  to  fit  a  certain 
line  on  the  hull.  For  this  purpose  the  wprkman  uses  a  spiling  batten, 
this  being  a  thin  flexible  board  which  is  bent  to  the  frames  or  hull  at 
the  point  where  it  is  desired  to  take  a  spiUng.  By  transferring  points 
from  the  desired  line  to  the  spiling  batten,  the  necessary  shape  of  the 
plank  to  fit  the  line  is  determined. 

Snipe — To  cut  off  the  end  of  a  timber  on  an  angle  so  that  it  runs  to  a 
point,  or  nearly  to  a  point. 

Strake — ^A  course  of  planking,  ceiling,  or  any  other  member  of  the 
hull  continuing  fore  and  aft  unbroken  except  by  butts  or  scarfs. 


FOREWORD  TO  CHAPTER  IV 

The  author  desires  at  this  time  to  again  remind  the  reader 
that  the  details  of  wood  ship  construction  which  may 
be  considered  the  best  practice  in  the  different  localities 
where  such  ships  are  built  are  so  much  at  variance  in  scant- 
lings, arrangement  and  fastening  that  it  is  impossible  to 
show  and  describe  all  of  them  within  the  limits  of  these 
chapters.  Practice  that  is  considered  good  in  one  locality 
may  not  be  so  considered  in  another.  Types  of  ships 
favored  in  the  different  localities  are  different.  Individual 
experiences  and  opinions  differ  according  to  the  measure 
of  success  operators  have  had  with  certain  types.  The 
sizes  and  character  of  timbers  available  for  the  construction 
of  wood  ships  in  different  localities  vary  greatly,  and  have 
a  very  decided  influence  on  design.  Taking  it  all  in  all, 
modern  designs  of  wood  ships  show  the  tendency  of  design- 
ers in  different  sections  not  only  to  approach  the  problem 
from  widely  divergent  angles  of  experience  and  observation, 
but  very  often  upon  absolutely  different  basic  principles. 

However,  even  with  the  confusing  mass  of  contradictory 
ideas  the  recent  wood  shipbuilding  has  produced,  there  is  a 
certain  relation  between  the  parts  of  a  ship  which  may  be 
said  to  exist  regardless  of  their  detail  scantling  arrange- 
ments. It  is  therefore  felt  that  if  the  reader  is  enabled  to 
familiarize  himself  with  one  or  two  types  of  construction  in 
detail,  he  will  at  once  recognize  similar  parts  of  other  ships 
though  they  may  differ  in  their  arrangement. 

In  the  last  chapter  the  tabulation  of  the  order  of  pro- 
cedure ended  with  the  fitting  of  the  lower  hold  bulkheads 
and  pointers.  Since  this  chapter  deals  with  deck  details, 
the  work  outlined  herein  would  properly  begin  with  the 
setting  of  the  deck  beams.  As  soon  as  the  beams  have 
been   fastened  at  the  ends  and  pumped  to  the  proper 

121 


122    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

camber,  the  hatch  framing  must  be  gotten  out  and  fitted 
in  place.  Breast  hooks,  deck  hooks,  chocks  for  receiving 
the  fastening  at  the  ends  of  the  decking,  and  mast  partners 
are  also  fitted  at  this  time.  It  may  also  be  found  conven- 
ient to  fit  at  this  time  such  heavy  chocking  as  may  be  re- 
quired in  way  of  deck  fittings,  winches,  etc.  All  hatch 
coamings  except  those  to  be  placed  on  top  of  the  decking 
should  be  fitted  and  fastened  before  the  decking  is  laid. 
Light  chocking  in  way  of  vents,  pipes,  etc.,  is  not  fitted 
until  the  pipes  are  in  place. 

The  exercise  of  a  reasonable  amount  of  care  in  seeing  that 
all  of  the  above  details  are  in  place  before  the  decking  is 
laid  will  often  save  much  trouble  and  expense  later  on. 

Hatch  details,  such  as  covers,  strongbacks,  etc.,  are 
gotten  out  at  any  time  when  the  arrangement  of  the  work 
permits. 

Tabulation  of  the  Order  of  Procedure — Deck  Details 

Main  Operation  Coincident  Operation 

Setting  of  deck  beams.  Pumping  and  shoring  beams   to 

camber. 
Fitting   of  fore  and  afters,  half        Setting    stanchions;    fitting  mast 
beams,  lodging  knees,  etc.,  at  partners,    breast    hooks,    deck 

;    hatches.  hooks,  chocks,  hatch  coamings, 

etc. 
Laying  of  waterways.  Fitting  of  shelves  or  hanging  knees. 

Laying  of  the  decking. 
Completion  of  hold  bulkheads. 

The  above  tabulation  refers  to  the  deck  only.  While 
this  work  is  going  on,  and  as  soon  as  the  ceiUng  fastening 
has  been  completed,  the  outside  planking  is  started,  and 
in  most  cases  the  planking  and  the  work  on  the  deck  will 
be  going  on  at  the  same  time. 


CHAPTER  IV 

DECK  DETAILS 

DECK  BEAMS,  HALF  BEAMS,  ETC. 

In  the  last  chapter  the  method  of  obtaining  the  camber 
on  the  beams  was  explained,  and  it  will  be  remembered 
that  only  a  part  of  the  camber  is  ordinarily  cut  on  the  beam, 
the  balance  being  obtained  by  springing.  In  the  case  of 
half  beams  and  short  beams  at  the  ends  of  the  vessel  the 
full  camber  must  be  cut  as  there  is  no  opportunity  of  spring- 
ing such  beams.  For  this  purpose  molds  are  made,  having 
the  correct  full  camber  for  both  the  upper  and  lower  faces 
of  the  half  beams,  or  short  beams  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  beams  are  then  laid  out  by  these  molds  and  worked 
to  the  full  camber. 

The  correct  shape  for  half-beam  molds  is  obtained  by 
laying  out  a  full  camber  curve  for  the  full  beam  of  the  ship 
as  has  been  previously  explained,  and  fitting  the  mold 
to  that  portion  of  the  curve  over  which  the  half  beam  actu- 
ally extends.  One  mold  is  generally  sufficient  for  all 
half  beams.  This  method  applies  to  all  half  beams  in 
any  type  of  hatch  framing. 

Beams  and  half  beams  are  generally  fastened  at  the  outer 
ends  with  two  drift  bolts  driven  well  into  the  clamps. 
For  the  beams,  this  is  largely  a  temporary  fastening 
to  hold  them  in  place  while  they  are  being  sprung  to  the 
full  camber,  after  which  the  knees  or  shelves  are  fitted 
and  the  main  beam  fastening  driven.  Very  often,  in  order 
to  assist  the  drift  bolts  in  holding  down  the  ends  of  the 
beams  during  the  pumping  it  is  necessary  to  clamp  heavy 
blocks  just  above  the  beams  and  on  the  inside  of  the  frames 
or  stanchions  in  such  position  that  wedges  may  be  driven 
between  the  lower  ends  of  the  blocks  and  the  ends  of  the 
beams.  This  keeps  the  fastening  from  starting  and  in  a 
little  while  after  the  beams  have  been  sprung  they  may  be 

123 


124    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

removed.  Half  beams  are  not  fitted  until  the  beams  have 
been  sprung  to  their  full  camber  and  the  hatch  trimmers 
have  been  placed.  The  outer  ends  of  half  beams  receive 
the  same  fastening  as  described  for  beam  ends. 

The  hold  stanchions  may  or  may  not  be  fitted  immediately 
after  the  beams  are  sprung.  Very  often  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  fit  temporary  shores  to  hold  the  beams  up  until 
such  time  as  the  hold  stanchions  can  be  fitted.  Where 
shores  are  used  there  should  be  two  to  each  beam,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  center-line,  or  location  of  the  hold 
stanchion,  so  as  to  leave  the  stanchion  location  clear. 

All  beams  should  be  worked  and  finished  smooth  before 
being  placed  in  the  ship.  The  lower  corners  are  commonly 
chamfered  except  in  way  of  shelves  or  hanging  knees. 
If  the  deck  frame  is  properly  handled  there  should  be 
practically  no  dubbing  necessary  to  secure  a  fair  surface 
for  laying  the  decking. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  beam  spacing  in  Fig.  122  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  frames,  while  in  Figs.  123  and  124 
it  is  different.  Where  hanging  knees  are  used  in  place  of 
shelves  the  tendency  is  to  make  the  beam  spacing  the  same 
as  that  of  the  frames  with  a  beam  against  each  jframe, 
as  then  all  of  the  knee  fastenings  will  land  in  the  frames. 
Where  the  beam  spacing  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the 
frames  as  in  Fig.  124  chocks  to  receive  fastening  are 
fitted  in  the  frame  bays  in  way  of  hanging  knees  not  land- 
ing on  the  frames.  In  Fig.  123  where  shelves  are  used 
there  is  no  particular  disadvantage  in  having  a  beam  space 
different  from  the  frame  space,  but  even  in  this  construc- 
tion the  modern  tendency  is  to  make  the  two  spacings 
practically  the  same. 

HATCH  FRAMING 

Three  types  of  hatch  framing  have  been  selected  as 
being  the  most  representative  of  the  many  different  con- 
structions used. 

That  shown  in  Fig.  122,  type  I,  is  in  use  at  the  present 


DECK  DETAILS  125 

time  in  large  vessels  having  either  no  shelf  strakes  or  very 
light' shelf  strakes,  in  either  case  the  beams  being  fitted 
with  hanging  knees.  The  figure  is  shown  without  shelf 
and  with  hanging  knees  spotted  under  each  beam. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  fore  and  after,  or  hatch  trimmer 
as  it  happens  to  be  called  on  these  vessels,  is  dapped  into 
the  hatch  beams  and  connected  thereto  at  each  end  with 
a  large  lodging  knee.  The  half  beams  are  in  turn  dapped 
into  the  hatch  trimmer  and  are  connected  thereto  with 
flat  iron  straps  turned  down  over  the  inside  of  the  trimmer 
and  well  fastened  with  countersunk  head  bolts  into  the 
half  beam.  These  daps  should  be  cut  with  a  standing 
bevel  from  the  top  of  the  hatch  beam,  or  fore  and  after 
(hatch  trimmer) ,  and  in  addition  should  have  a  step  or  landing 
worked  about  halfway  down  the  side  of  the  beam  or  fore 
and  after,  as  shown  in  the  figures.  The  bevel  should  be 
such  as  to  carry  the  dap  in  on  the  upper  face  not  to  exceed 
2  to  2}yi  inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  beam,  and  the 
step  may  be  made  from  J^  to  %  inch  wide.  Not  only  does 
this-  form  of  dap  make  the  fitting  and  fastening  of 
the  trimmers  and  half  beams  easier,  but  it  actually  adds 
to  the  strength  of  the  connection. 

Where  fore  and  afters,  or  trimmers,  are  deeper  in  molding 
than  the  hatch  beams,  they  are  generally  dapped  up  from 
below  as  shown  in  section  C-C,  Fig.  122,  and  the  dap  is 
made  without  bevel.  These  rules  in  general  apply  to  all 
hatch  framing. 

The  various  sections  below  the  main  figure  show  the 
shape  of  the  end  and  side  coamings  both  for  the  weather 
and  lower  decks.  Note  that  the  end  coaming  is  set  on  the 
beam  and  that  it  can  therefore  be  placed  and  fastened  when 
the  side  coamings  are  fitted.  The  absence  of  individual 
lodging  knees  at  the  ends  of  the  hatch  and  half  beams 
in  these  vessels  is  compensated  for  by  fitting  diagonal 
steel  straps  on  the  beams  before  the  decking  is  laid,  these 
straps  being  set  in  flush  with  the  tops  of  the  beams  and 
extending  from  side  to  side  of  the  ship.  At  their  ends  they 
are  riveted  to  a  steel  deck  stringer  plate  which  in  these 


126    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


HATCH     FRAMING 

TYPE-I 


rW 


B-*-" 


,FORe  AHO  AFTER 
OK  HATCH   TRIMMCR 


MATCH  BEAM 


TKIM'^Qf^ 


FIGURE->22 


A  OF  SHIP 


TRIMMER 


m 


//ATCH  B£AM 


SECT/ON-CC 

WHLRE  TRIMMER  /5  MOLDED 
SAME  AS  HATCH   BEAM 


SECTION-CC 

INHERE    TRIMMER  I S  MOLDEO 
DEEPER  THAN  HATCH  BEAM 


SIDE    COAM^Hq^ 


SIDE  COAMlNd 


T'^  Pi,/fre 


TIE  PLATE 


::£ 


z. 


EAfO  CO  A  Ml  fid 


TiyiMMER 


Tcrr 

L..J 


5ECT/ON-/\A 


TRIMMER 


IMP  COAniHi 
HATCH 


SMOI^/M<i 

COAMIHQ  WS    ON 

WE/tTHEA 

OR  UPPER  DECK 

SIDE 

COAMING 

r/^^tf|<f>T^ 

^^Jj                HALF  BEAM^ 

se:ct)om-a-a 

SMOWINq    COAMIMG  AS  ON 
DECHS    BELOW    WEATHER  DECK 


MATCH   ^^-^ 


£<^Z^ 


SECTION 


SHOWING      CO-IMIhlQ  AS  ON 
tVEATHER   OR   UPPEK    DECK 


DECK  DETAILS  127 

vessels  takes  the  place  of  the  waterways.  A  section  show- 
ing one  form  of  this  stringer  plate  is  shown  in  Fig.  131. 

Type  II,  Fig.  123,  also  shows  a  construction  that  is 
now  in  use  in  large  ships.  Here  there  are  heavy  shelf 
strakes  under  the  beam  ends  in  place  of  hanging  knees. 
The  fore  and  after  is  dapped  into  the  hatch  beams  and  con- 
nected thereto  by  a  small  lodging  knee,  while  the  half 
beams  are  connected  to  the  fore  and  after  in  the  same 
manner.  Typical  arrangements  of  fastening  for  these 
lodging  knees  are  shown. 

Another  feature  of  this  construction  is  the  continuous 
stringer,  on  each  side,  under  the  fore  and  afters,  which 
extends  fore  and  aft  at  least  to  the  peak  bulkheads.  This 
is  fitted  not  only  to  furnish  additional  strength  in  way  of 
the  hatches,  which  is  quite  essential,  but  to  add  to  the 
strength  of  the  ship  itself. 

Coamings  in  this  type  of  hatch  are  generally  fitted  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  122. 

Type  III,  Fig.  124,  is  a  construction  that  is  much  used 
where  the  beams  are  fitted  with  hanging  knees  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  shelves.  Here  the  fore  and  after  is  fitted  in 
the  usual  manner  and  the  half  beams  have  lodging  knees  at 
each  end.  Chocks  are  shown  fitted  between  the  beam 
ends  over  the  clamps. 

These  beam  chocks  are  in  reality  a  part  of  the  beam  fasten- 
ing and  they  are  quite  commonly  fitted  to  all  beams  in  the  ship 
and  not  only  to  those  in  way  of  the  hatches  as  the  reader 
might  be  led  to  believe  through  the  fact  that  owing  to  the 
limits  of  the  page  they  are  here  shown  only  in  way  of  the 
hatch  framing.  Further  on  in  this  chapter  are  details 
showing  these  chocks  without  respect  to  the  hatch  framing. 
Beam  chocks  are  not  fitted  in  ships  using  the  style  of 
hatch  framing  shown  in  Fig.  122.  They  may  or  may  not  be 
used  with  the  type  of  construction  shown  in  Fig.  123,  and 
are  invariably  used  with  the  construction  shown  in  Fig.  124. 

In  way  of  lodging  knees  they  are  extra  fastened  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  In  any  event  they  receive  from  two  to  four 
drift  bolts  into  the  clamps,  and  also  have  a  hardwood 


128    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


HATCH    FRAMING 
TYPE-n 


CONTINUOUS 


i 


EnD  Coaming 


MATCti  BEAM 


UPPER 


/ 


\s 


B-*^ 


CLAMP 


STRIKE 


SHELF. 


STfJAKLi 


HAlFBtAMS 


\ 


t±^ 


FOKJt  Jill^  Afi^kfK^ 


«  *  4  k    ^ 


■  it   k "*>  A 


FIGURE-123 


HATCH  BEAM 


or  SHIP 


f'ORB  ANOAFTVJ9 


•;5 


SECTION-C-C 

SHOWING     STRINGER 


Z. 


SIDE    CQi^MIWg 


tLHO  CO/tMIN 


FORE  AND  AFTtfj^S. 


STRINQE.R 


STfUNQSR. 


S/D£  COAMIN6 


DCCKING 


.HALF  BEAM 


SELCTION-AA 
SHOVHItia    COAMINC  AS 
OH    y>fEATHe:R   D£CH 


SELCTION'BB 

SHOW  IN  Q  COAMINq   AS 
OH    WEATHER  DECK 


DECK  DETAILS 


129 


HATCH    FRAMING 
TYPE-IE 


TOp'^oF  be»m1>rdeI:k  un£      m^Rpwood  tree  mils    oript  bouts  ihto  clamps 


V 


fo^e:  and  after. 


PIGURE-124 


% 


^ 


COfWMUOUS  ST^t/^QtC^S 


END  CC/*Mttt^  SID£  CCAMf/t<i 


a£aa^A 


MMAH 


W        I 

-i L. 


— ^—r- 


131 


X/^o/rs  SMo  /trrtn. 


SE:CTIOM->t->\ 

SHOmHG  COAMIMG  AND  DECK  STfilMG£l9S  AS  ON  f^£AT//£R  D£CK 


SIDK.  CO/*fliN9 


y\m0AMif 


SELCT  ION-SB 

SHOWING  f^eArHe.n  oecht  co^mifto  a/vo  srifiMQ^Ks 

ALSO  TYf>fCAL  SHAPE  OF  E/i/O  COAMjNQ  rOAALLSHJPS 


130    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

treenail  set  in  the  joint  between  beam  and  chock  at  each 
end  to  assist  in  locking  the  beam  in  place.  In  some  cases 
the  chocks  are  omitted  in  way  of  the  lodging  knees,  the 
latter  then  being  fitted  direct  to  the  frame.  Where  this 
is  done  and  the  beam  spacing  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
frames  with  a  beam  against  each  frame,  the  bays  must 
be  chocked  to  provide  room  for  driving  sufficient  knee 
fastening. 

Continuous  stringers  are  fitted  on  each  side  of  these 
hatches  on  top  of  the  beams  and  extend  fore  and  aft  at 
least  as  far  as  the  poop  and  forecastle  bulkheads.  The 
side  coamings  are  quite  small  and  set  on  top  of  the  larger 
of  the  two  stringer  members.  The  hatch  end  coamings 
set  on  top  of  the  decking,  and  are  therefore  not  fitted  until 
after  the  decking  is  laid.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  decking 
projects  inside  of  the  end  coamings,  forming  a  ledge  which 
is  later  used  as  a  support  for  the  strongbacks. 

HATCH  COAMINGS 

Three  of  the  principal  types  of  coamings  used  on  weather 
deck  hatches  are  shown  in  Figs.   125  to  127  inclusive. 

Type  1,  Fig.  125  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  commonly 
used  and  is  the  type  shown  in  the  detail  sections  in  Figs. 
122  and  123.  Both  end  and  side  coamings  set  on  the  beam 
and  the  decking  is  stopped  against  them.  The  corners 
are  halved,  the  bottom  of  the  timbers  being  left  square 
and  the  top  rounded  to  a  radius.  In  the  corner  the  rabbet 
is  not  turned  square,  but  is  cut  across  at  an  angle  at  about 
45  degrees. 

Figure  126  is  a  large  corner  detail  of  the  type  of  coaming 
shown  in  detail  sections  in  Fig.  124. 

Here,  the  side  coaming  consists  of  a  small  timber  set  on 
top  of  the  principal  stringer  member.  The  end  coaming 
is  worked  from  a  solid  timber.  It  may  or  may  not  set  on 
top  of  the  decking  and  is  dapped  into  the  continuous 
stringer.  The  dap  shown  in  the  figure  is  square,  but  very 
often  it  is  cut  on  a  bevel  as  shown  in  Fig.  127.     Here  the 


DECK  DETAILS 


131 


SIDE  COAMINQ 


HATCH   CORNERS 
TVPE'I 


FIGURE-iaS 


END  COAMrNG 


nGURE-126 


END  COAMINg 


RODS  tVlTW  HUTS  AHO 
I^ASHEHS  oh  £/iCH  EWO 
TD  TIE  Sipg  CO/JMinaS 
TO   END  COMiHQS 


SIDE  COI^MINQ 


FIGURE- 127 


END    ON  CENTER 
OF   BEArvi 


132    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

rabbet  is  also  cut  across  the  corner  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 
Note  that  this  coaming  is  not  beveled  off  on  the  outer  face 
below  the  top  of  the  continuous  stringer  as  this  would 
make  it  very  difficult  to  fit  in  the  dap. 

In  type  III  Fig.  127  the  side  coaming  is  worked  from 
a  solid  timber  but  is  extended  past  the  end  coaming  to  the 
middle  of  about  the  second  beam  from  the  hatch  beam. 
The  end  coaming  may  or  may  not  be  set  on  top  of  the 
decking.  It  is  bevel  dapped  into  the  side  coaming  and  rods 
with  nuts  on  each  end  are  fitted  to  hold  the  coamings 
together  at  the  corners.  Large  washers  are  fitted  under 
these  nuts.     The  rabbet  is  turned  square  in  the  corner. 

In  general,  side  coamings  are  set  with  their  inside  faces 
plumb,  and  the  bottom  edges  must  therefore  be  beveled 
off  where  the  deck  carries  a  camber.  End  coamings  are 
set  with  their  inside  faces  square  with  the  run  of  the  deck. 
Where  the  deck  carries  a  camber  they  must  be  scribed  down 
to  shape.  Where  the  corners  are  as  in  Fig.  125  this  may 
be  done  before  the  corner  cuts  are  made.  In  Figs.  126 
and  127,  since  the  side  coamings  are  generally  the  first  to 
be  fitted,  the  end  coamings  are  scribed  down  after  the  end 
cuts  are  made  and  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  scribe 
off  the  exact  amount  to  get  a  proper  fit  at  the  ends. 

Weather  deck  hatch  coamings  may  vary  in  height  from 
24  to  32  inches,  measured  from  the  top  of  the  decking  to 
the  top  of  the  coaming,  depending  upon  the  class  of  the 
vessel  and  the  requirements  of  the  classification  society 
rules  under  which  the  vessel  is  being  built.  Lower  deck 
hatch  coamings  are  usually  made  only  of  sufficient  height 
to  receive  a  proper  rabbet  for  the  covers. 

Coamings  are  always  rabbeted  to  receive  the  hatch 
covers.  While  the  distance  that  the  rabbet  is  cut  in  on 
the  coaming  may  vary  from  about  23-^  to  S}i  inches 
its  depth  must  always  be  exactly  the  same  as  the  thickness 
of  the  covers,  which  is  generally  about  3}i  inches. 

The  tops  of  side  coamings  on  all  decks  are  always  made 
parallel  with  the  deck.  Tops  of  end  coamings  on  weather 
decks  are  worked  with  a  pitch  rising  toward  the  center- 


DECK  DETAILS  133 

line  of  the  ship  as  shown  in  Fig.  124,  Section  B-B.  There 
is  no  rule  for  the  amount  of  pitch  to  be  used  but  it  should 
not  as  a  rule  be  less  than  about  K  inch  to  the  foot.  Tops 
of  end  coamings  of  hatches  on  the  lower  decks  are  made 
without  pitch  where  the  deck  has  no  camber. 

It  is  very  essential  that  coamings  be  securely  fastened. 
Generally  they  are  fastened  with  large  button-headed  bolts, 
close  spaced  and  driven  from  the  top  through  coaming  and 
beam  or  fore  and  after.  Below,  these  bolts  are  either 
clinched  over  rings  or  fitted  with  nuts  set  up  on  plate 
washers.  The  heads  on  top  of  the  coamings  are  set  in 
counterbores  which  are  plugged  with  white  pine  plugs  set 
in  white  lead. 

HATCH  REINFORCING 

It  is  impossible  to  set  the  ordinary  type  of  hold  stanchions 
in  way  of  the  hatches  and  some  means  must  be  provided  for 
supporting,  or  reinforcing  the  deck  and  hatch  framing  in 
this  vicinity  so  that  it  will  safely  carry  the  loads  of  cargo 
placed  at  these  points. 

Iii  hatches  where  stringers  are  provided  as  in  Figs.  123 
and  124  it  is  customary  to  set  quarter  pillars  at  each  of  the 
four  corners  of  the  hatch,  these  being  placed  under  the 
stringers.  In  hatches  where  the  stringers  are  under  the 
beams  as  in  Fig.  124  the  quarter  pillars  may  be  set  three  or 
four  feet  fore  and  aft  of  the  ends  of  the  hatches,  pro- 
vided, of  course  that  the  stringers  are  made  strong  enough 
to  carry  the  additional  load  due  to  the. longer  span.  In 
hatches  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  124  the  quarter  pillars  are 
set  directly  at  the  hatch  corners.  This  is  also  true  with 
the  design  of  hatch  framing  shown  in  Fig.  122.  Quarter 
pillars  are  fitted  and  fastened  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
hold  stanchions.  Additional  pillars  may  also  be  set  under 
the  stringers  between  the  hatches,  depending  upon  the 
distance  from  one  hatch  to  the  other. 

In  the  type  of  hatch  framing  shown  in  Fig.  122,  where 
there  is  a  total  absence  of  stringers,  intermediate  *pillars 
must  be  set  at  the  middle  of  the  trimmer  beams  as  these 


134    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

beams  are  not  strong  enough  to  carry  the  full  cargo  load. 
These  pillars  are  usually  made  removable  so  that  they  can 
be  taken  out  of  the  way  when  loading  or  unloading  cargo. 

DECK  AND  BREAST  HOOKS 

There  is  some  confusion  in  different  localities  in  the  use  of 
the  terms  ^^ Breast  Hook"  and  '' Deck  Hook. "  The  author 
has  always  considered  the  breast  hook  as  being  properly  a 
member  landing  in  way  of  the  upper  clamp  strake  and 
against  the  apron,  to  both  of  which  it  is  fayed.  It  usually 
is  worked  from  a  large  natural  crook  knee.  The  deck  hook, 
he  has  always  considered  as  being  a  series  of  short  beams, 
set  against  the  apron  and  each  other  and  on  top  of  the 
clamps.  The  breast  hook  ties  the  upper  clamp  together 
and  to  the  stem  structure.  The  deck  hook  furnishes  the 
connection  between  the  decking,  clamps  and  stem  structure. 
Where  the  breast  hook  is  omitted  the  deck  hook  serves 
both  purposes.  Breast  hooks  may  be  fitted  where  no 
decking  is  laid.  Deck  hooks  are  never  fitted  except  where 
decking  extends  to  and  against  the  stem  structure. 

Figure  128  shows  both  of  the  above  features  of  construc- 
tion. It  is  assumed  in  this  figure  that  the  lower  or  tween 
decks,  if  any  is  laid,  ends  against  the  peak,  or  collision,  bulk- 
head and  therefore  does  not  extend  to  the  stem.  A  breast 
hook  is  shown  fitted  to  the  upper  clamp  strake  under  this 
line  of  beams. 

Upper,  weather,  or  main  deck  decking,  is  always  extended 
to  and  against  the  apron  or  waterway  hook,  hence  there 
would  be  a  deck  hook  as  shown  in  the  figure.  As  before 
mentioned  the  breast  hook  below  the  deck  is  often  omitted. 

Breasthooks  are  fitted  and  fastened  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  hanging  knees.  Most  of  the  bolts  should  be 
headed,  driven  from  the  outside  and  clinched  over  rings  on 
the  inside.  Heavy  throat  bolts  are  driven,  either  headed  or 
through  rings,  well  into  the  apron  and  stem. 

Deck  hooks  are  generally  fastened  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  bolts  extending  fore  and  aft  should  be  as  long  as  pos- 


DECK  DETAILS 


135 


DECK  ^ND  BREAST  HOQY^S 


KNiqHT  MEAD 


SJE!± 


UFfElf  CLAMP 


oirruNB.  OP  Btt£Asr 


MO  on  Jis  swteTmus 


F/rreo  JfMoeKoecK 


MO  OK 


FiGURE-iae 


136    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

sible.  Where  care  is  exercised  the  timbers  forming  the  hook 
may  be  worked  to  the  deck  camber  before  being  placed  but 
it  is  generally  best  to  leave  them  a  Httle  high  so  that  they 
may  be  dubbed  to  the  correct  camber  after  being  fastened 
down.  To  allow  for  necessary  dubbing  the  bolts  fastening 
the  deck  hook  to  the  clamps  are  often  plain  drifts  set  in. 
Where  they  are  button-headed  bolts,  or  plain-headed  bolts 
driven  through  rings,  they  should  be  counterbored  and  set 
in. 

'     MAST  PARTNERS  AND  CHOCKS 

Typical  mast  partners  are  shown  in  Fig.  129.  They  are 
not  fitted  until  the  beams  have  been  sprung  to  the  full 
camber.  One  of  the  best  methods  of  obtaining  the  correct 
shape  of  the  upper  and  lower  faces  of  the  partners  so  that 
they  will  fit  the  camber  of  the  beams  is  to  scribe  the  partner 
mold  direct  from  the  beams  after  they  have  been  sprung. 

Masts  are  not  set  square  with  the  keel,  but  generally  rake 
aft  from  3^^  inch  to  %  inch  to  the  foot  of  height.  It  is  neces- 
sary therefore  before  the  partners  are  in  place  to  set  a  line 
on  the  centerlines  of  the  mast  and  ship,  extending  from  the 
location  of  the  mast  step  on  top  of  the  keelsons,  past  all  of 
the  decks  and  having  the  desired  rake  with  the  keel.  If 
the  tops  of  the  keelsons  are  parallel  with  the  keel  the  rake 
may  be  measured  from  the  keelsons.  An  ordinary  carpen- 
ter's chalk  line  may  be  used  for  this  purpose  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  it  is  set  in  exactly  the  position  that 
would  be  occupied  by  the  center  of  the  mast. 

By  measuring  the  distances  from  this  line  to  the  beams, 
at  both  the  upper  and  lower  faces,  the  proper  location  and 
bevel  of  the  mast  hole  is  obtained.  This  will  not  neces- 
sarily center  on  the  joint  between  the  partners. 

The  prehminary  hole  cut  in  the  partners  is  usually 
much  smaller  than  that  finally  required  for  the  mast.  If 
sufficient  care  is  taken  in  locating  the  centers,  the  holes 
may  be  cut  to  within  about  one  inch  of  the  final  diameter, 
and  this  may  be  done  either  before  or  after  the  partners 
have  been  fastened  in  place.  The  final  diameter  will  be 
that  of  the  mast  plus  the  room  required  for  the  wedges. 


DECK  DETAILS 


137 


MISCELLANEOUS  DECK  DETAILS 


SECTtON'AA 


FIGURE"  129    MAST  PARTNe.RS 


^ COVER  BOARD 


SCRE.W  BOLTS 
HOLDIMQ  F/TTZ/y^^RE 
C/>RWIED   THRU 
COVER  BOAHD  AHO 
FITTED   tVITM  LARGE 
WASHERS  AHO  HUTS 


PLAN  DECKINQ  REMOVED  SECTIOH-C-C 

r  I G  U  RE~  I  3  O      CHOCKS  OMDER   DECK  FfTT/NQS  SUCH 
^fs"  BOLLARDS.  CMOCHS  AND   WlMCJfET' 


BEAM 


BEAM 


CHOCK 


PL/^  N-DECKING  REMOVED 
FIGURE- 13  > 


coAMma 


SECTION -AA 


CHOCKS  IH   tySY  OF  MANHOLES.  y£MT/LATOR 
P/R£S    ETC. 


138    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

The  bolts  fastening  the  partners  should  pass  through 
beam  and  beam  and  be  clinched  over  rings  on  each  end. 
Sometimes  an  end  chock,  dapped  into  the  beams,  is  fitted 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  outline  at  "B/^  but  this  is  rather 
unusual  in  steamers. 

Chocks  between  the  beams  must  be  placed  under  all 
deck  fittings  which  require  through  fastening.  They  are 
generally  dapped  into  the  beams  from  below  as  shown  in 
Fig.  130  and  may  be  placed  either  before  or  after  the  deck- 
ing is  laid.  If  their  proper  locations  can  be  determined  in 
time  it  is  more  convenient  to  set  them  before  the  decking 
is  laid. 

Beneath  these  chocks  heavy  coverboards  should  be  fitted 
as  shown  in  the  figure.  These  give  a  better  appearance  to 
the  job  and  at  the  same  time  provide  a  necessary  tie  between 
the  beams  and  chocks.  The  fastening  for  the  coverboard 
and  chocks  usually  consists  of  standard  boat  spikes  and  they 
must  be  kept  clear  of  the  holding  down  bolts  for  the  fittings, 
which  are  to  be  put  through  later. 

Chocks  between  beams  must  also  be  placed  at  the  ends  of 
the  ship  where  decking  ends  land  between  beams  as  shown 
in  Figs.  139  and  140.  These  chocks  are  not  generally 
dapped  into  the  beams.  They  should,  however,  be  well 
fastened  with  either  small-headed   drifts  or  boat  spikes. 

Light  chocks  are  also  fitted  where  vent  pipes  or  similar 
fixtures  pass  through  the  deck.  These  are  not  generally 
fitted  until  after  the  vent  pipes  are  in  place  which  is,  of 
course  also  some  time  after  the  decking  has  been  laid. 
A  very  convenient  way  of  cutting  them  is  shown  in  Fig.  131. 
When  cut  in  this  manner  it  is  possible  to  secure  a  neat  fit 
to  the  pipe  and  no  other  finish  is  required.  It  will  be 
seen  that  with  a  small  coaming  on  top  of  the  decking,  and 
this  chock  below,  both  fitting  the  pipe,  it  is  not  necessary 
for  the  hole  in  the  decking  to  be  cut  with  great  accuracy. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  since  such  pipes  vary  slightly  in  size 
throughout  their  lengths,  and  also  have  overlapping  joints, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  secure  a  neat  fit  in  the  decking 


DECK  DETAILS  139 

proper  and  still  make  the  hole  large  enough  for  the  insertion 
of  the  pipe. 

WATERWAYS  AND  DECKING 

Main  and  lower  deck  waterways  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions do  not  vary  greatly  in  type  or  arrangement.  There 
may  be  either  two  or  three  strakes.  In  a  two-strake  water- 
way there  will  be  the  outer  strake  and  the  lock  strake.  In 
a  three-strake  water  there  will  generally  be  one  outer  and 
one  inner  strake  with  a  lock  strake  between  them,  though 
sometimes  the  lock  strake  is  placed  inboard  with  the  other 
two  strakes  outside  of  it. 

For  the  same  reasons  that  outlines  of  the  waterways 
were  shown  in  connection  with  clamp  and  shelf  details  it 
has  been  considered  necessary  to  show  outHnes  of  clamp 
and  shelf  details  in  these  waterway  details.  It  will  be 
understood  that  no  particular  type  of  clamp  or  shelf 
arrangement  is  confined  to  use  with  a  given  type  of 
waterways. 

The  width  of  the  outer  waterway  strake  or  strakes  must 
be  such  as  to  place  the  lock  strake  well  in  on  the  beam. 
The  depth  of  the  lock  on  the  beam  varies  from  two  to  three 
inches  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  beam  and  waterways. 
The  tops  of  waterways  are  generally  made  flush.  The 
strakes  are  as  a  rule  set  square  with  the  upper  face  of  the 
beam,  the  outer  strake  being  beveled  to  fay  to  the  frames  or 
stanchions. 

Type  1,  Fig.  132  shows  a  two-strake  waterway  as  it 
would  appear  on  the  weather  deck  in  way  of  the  bulwarks 
and  Fig.  133  shows  the  same  type  of  waterway  as  it  would 
appear  either  on  a  lower  deck  or  on  the  weather  deck  in 
way  of  the  bridge  erection. 

The  space  between  the  stanchions  is  chocked  flush  with 
the  top  of  the  waterways.  These  chocks  should  rest  on 
the  top  timbers  as  shown  in  Fig.  132  and  are  usually  fas- 
tened in  place  with  hardwood  treenails  driven  as  shown. 
The  inboard  and  outboard  faces  of  these  chocks  should  be 
exactly  flush  with  the  corresponding  faces  of  the  stanchions, 
and  a  calking  seam  should  be  provided  at  the  ends  and  out- 


140    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


WATERWAY  DETAILS 

A\.SO    SHOWIHQ   BEAM  CONHECTIOMS 


CHQCSL 


TYPC'I 

STAMCHtOM 


PLAN   SHOWING  5CARF 

1^  ^  3r>»HCHICHS 


INBOARD  VIEW  SECTION  0*/T BOARD  VIEW 

FIGURE''I32  AS  ON  WEATHER   DECK  JN  JVAV  OV  BULWARK 

O  -  BUTrow   MEAO  DWIFr^ 

•  -CtlHCHi^D   BUTTON  HtAD  BOtTS  THRU  IMHER  STWAKE, 

»  -CCINCMED  BUTTON  MEAD  BOLTS  TM^U  OUTER  gTWAKE 


NOTE'FASTeMIHii  WOT  SHODWi 
IS  SfiME  AS  IM  ri€t.l3Z 


,p'^Ar»«, 


INBOARD  VIEW 


SECTION 


OUTBOARD  VIEW 


FIGURE^ISS  A5  ON  WE/JTHER  DSCK  IN   *V^y  OF  BRIOqe. 
/ILSO  MS  ON  TI^EEN   DECKS 


DECK  DETAILS  141 

board  face.  The  calking  seam  for  the  inboard  face  is  gen- 
erally run  on  the  waterway  strake. 

Figure  132  also  shows  the  proper  setting  of  waterway 
scarfs.  Nibs  should  be  of  standard  depth  and  the  scarf 
lengths  should  be  extended  beyond  the  standard  if  necessary 
to  properly  land  the  nibs.  Calking  seams  must  be  run  on 
the  upper  edges  of  all  scarfs. 

The  most  important  part  of  waterway  construction  is 
the  fastening.  These  members  usually  form  one  of  the 
most  important  connections  of  the  beams  to  the  side  of  the 
ship  and  it  is  therefore  essential  that  they  be  well  and 
carefully  fastened. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  this  figure  the  outer  strake  receives 
two  button-headed  bolts  driven  from  the  outside  and 
clinched  over  rings  on  the  inside.  The  inner,  or  lock  strake 
receives  also  two  such  bolts  driven  from  the  outside  and 
clinched  over  rings  on  the  inside.  These  four  bolts  are 
arranged  to  square  up  through  the  frame  or  stanchion. 
In  addition  two  button-headed  bolts  are  driven  through 
both  strakes  into  the  chock,  in  way  of  the  wells,  and  into 
the  frame  in  way  of  the  bridge  where  it  is  not  necessary 
to  fit  chocks.  For  vertical  fastening  to  the  beam,  each 
strake  has  two  button-headed  bolts  driven  at  each  beam, 
those  in  the  outer  strake  extending  into  the  clamps,  and 
those  in  the  lock  strake  being  driven  into  the  knee.  Scarfs 
should  have  not  less  than  two  extra  bolts  between  each 
frame  or  stanchion. 

In  Fig.  134  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fitting  of  shelves  makes 
practically  no  difference  in  the  number  and  location  of 
the  fastenings  but  does  change  the  character  of  some  of 
them.  In  this  figure  we  have  a  typical  three  strake  water- 
way and  scarcely  any  comment  need  be  made  except  to 
call  attention  to  the  vertical  bolting  of  the  lock  and  inner 
waterway  strakes  which,  it  will  be  seen,  passes  through 
the  shelves  and  is  clinched  over  rings  below. 

The  foregoing  descriptions  apply  to  waterways  as  gen- 
erally fitted  on  the  main  deck  or  decks  below  the  main 
deck.     When  a  shelter  deck  is  to  be  fitted  it  may  or  may 


142    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

not  be  of  lighter  construction  than  the  main  deck.  In 
small  vessels  it  is  generally  made  much  lighter  while  in 
larger  vessels  the  tendency  is  to  make  it  even  of  heavier 
construction  than  the  main  deck.  One  type  of  waterway 
used  in  shelter  decks  of  light  construction  is  shown  in  Fig. 
135.  Here  the  waterway  becomes  nothing  more  or  less 
than  a  covering  board,  and  is  worked  and  fastened  as  a 
covering  board.     This  construction  is  not  often  used. 

In  Fig.  136  we  have  the  waterway  as  applied  to  the  bridge 
deck,  and  here  as  in  Fig.  135  it  is  practically  a  covering 
board,  and  in  fact  is  generally  so  called.  The  construc- 
tion shown  in  this  figure,  including  the  waterway,  clamps, 
and  knee  is  practically  typical  for  bridge  decks,  forecastle 
and  poop  decks. 

On  account  of  being  in  a  location  where  there  is  great 
shrinkage  these  hanging  knees  are  often  fastened  with  screw 
bolts  instead  of  the  usual  clinch  bolts. 

In  either  Fig.  135  or  Fig.  136,  the  button-headed  bolts 
fastening  the  waterway  have  the  heads  set  down  in  counter- 
bores  which  are  plugged  in  the  usual  manner. 

Figure  137  shows  a  patented  arrangement  of  steel  plates 
and  hanging  knees  which  is  being  used  on  a  few  ships  in 
lieu  of  waterways  and  shelves  or  knees  of  wood.  It  is 
known  as  a  reinforced  construction.  It  may  be  noted  here 
that  this  type  of  construction  is  used  in  connection  with 
the  diagonal  planking  system  which  has  been  mentioned 
before.  Attention  is  called  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
chocks  between  the  frames  are  dapped  or  dovetailed  in 
place.  These  chocks  are  to  receive  the  end  fastening  of 
the  diagonal  planking. 

Figure  138  shows  a  typical  arrangement  of  heavy  scant- 
ling waterways  and  shelves  for  a  shelter-decked  vessel  having 
two  full  decks  and  a  lower  tier  of  beams,  known  as  low^er, 
orlop,  or  hold  beams.  Note  that  the  frames  extend  to 
the  tops  of  the  upper  waterways,  that  the  outer  strake  is 
dovetailed  to  the  frame,  and  that  the  frame  heads  are  cov- 
ered with  a  planksheer.  The  fastening  is  not  shown  as 
there  is  nothing  unusual  in  its  arrangement. 


DECK  DETAILS 


143 


MISCELLANEOUS  WATERWAY  DETAILS 


TYPE-g 


STAHCHIOM 


F I GU RE- 134- >95o/v  weather  deck  in  way  of  bulwark 


TYPE-fll 


DOUBLE 


Fl  GUR  E"  135  AS  on  shelter  deck        f\Ct\JRE,''\Z6  a^a  Bmoes  peck 


TrPE-Br 


tVAT£RW/l-f  OR 


STHINGeR/ttiQLE 


SneCR  PLATE 


p^TTArrED  srE£i. 

AS  AfJfj/tNQeO  OH 

SHELTER  DECK  IN 

U£U  Of  CLAMPS, 

J  SH£LY£S.  ¥MT£RtVSrS 


SELCTtON-A'A 


COUHTSR  S4/MH    H£AO 

scKKv*  Bot.rx 

^£ANtHNq 
FR/tmES  DOUBLE 

DOUBLE  DIAGONAL 
PLANKING 


FIGURE' 137 


144    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


WATER  WAY   DETAILS  -TYPEY 

ALSO  SMOWinO   CUAMPAtiD  SHELF    CONSTRUCTION  IN  HE.AVy  SCAHTUHQ  Y£SSEL 


OUTER  srn/iKE 

UOCK  STRAKC 
tNNER  STRAKE.  ^ ^  . 


PL/triK  SHEER 


^WEVrE^  pgc^       ^ 


MAIN  DECK 


K 


mmmwm 


LOWER  OR  ORLOP  BEAMS 


NO  DECKING 


PLAHHINq 


FyGURE'>38 


DECK  DETAILS  145 

Where  waterways  are  extended  to  the  stem,  or  around 
the  stern,  the  various  members  have  to  be  worked  to  shape 
as  shown  in  Figs.  139  and  140.  It  will  be  noticed  that  not 
only  is  it  necessary  to  use  a  close  shift  of  scarfs  at  the  ends 
of  the  vessel,  but  the  scarfs  are  also  shorter  than  the  rule 
length.  The  shifts  of  scarfs  that  must  be  used  are  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  curvature  at  the  point  where  the 
timber  is  being  fitted  and  the  available  width  of  the  stock 
from  which  the  timber  is  to  be  cut.  Narrow  stock  will 
require  close  shifts  of  scarfs,  and  wide  stock  will  permit 
greater  shifts  of  scarfs,  but  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  it 
is  not  wise  to  go  even  if  very  wide  stock  is  available.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  where  very  wide  stock  is  used  to 
secure  greater  shifts  of  scarfs  the  result  is  often  a  scarf 
so  cross  grained  that  it  has  practically  no  strength.  It  is 
also  to  avoid  this  condition  that  scarfs  are  made  shorter 
than  the  rule  length. 

In  these  figures  two  strakes  of  the  waterways  are  shown 
carried  to  the  stem  and  around  the  stern.  Where  a  third 
waterway  strake  is  fitted  it  is  quite  often  stopped  at  the 
poop  and  forecastle  bulkheads. 

The  lock  strake,  where  carried  around  the  stem,  is 
made  the  same  depth  as  the  outer  strake,  that  is,  the.  lock 
is  omitted  in  way  of  the  rim. 

The  molds  for  the  members  to  be  worked  to  shape  may 
be  prepared  in  the  loft,  but  should  in  any  case  be  checked 
from  the  ship  as  some  variations  are  bound  to  occur. 

Where  the  stern  is  built  up  of  solid  work  above  the  main 
deck  there  is  no  necessity  of  carrying  the  waterways  around 
and  they  are  generally  allowed  to  run  out  against  the  solid 
work  as  shown  by  the  dot  and  dash  lines  in  Fig.  140. 

At  the  stem  in  Fig.  139  a  natural  crook  hook  is  fitted 
and  fastened  generally  as  shown  in  the  figure.  This  hook 
has  the  same  depth  as  the. inner  waterway  strake,  and  the 
decking  butts  against  it. 

At  the  stern,  where  the  two  members  of  the  inner  strake 
butt  at  the  centerline,  an  anchor  stock  is  fitted,  to  avoid 

10 


146    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


WATERWAYS  AND  DECKING  AT  BOW 


,WATERW/»Y  HOOK 
NATURAL  CROOK 


OUTER  WATERWAY 


LOCK  STRAKE 


DECK  DETAILS 


147 


WATERWAYS  AND  DECKING  AT  STERN 


SHOt^lHG  ENDS 


OF  »VATER»V/>Y5 
IF  STERN  IS 
BUiLT  UP  OF 
SOLID   WORtK 


OUTER  STRAKF. 


LOCK  STRAKE 


l/iNCHOR   STOCK 

FIGURE-/40 


148    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

the  excessive  cross  grain  that  would  result  with  an  ordinary 
scarf. 

Both  figures  show  clearly  the  chocks  between  the  beams 
to  receive  the  deck  end  fastenings  and  which  have  been 
previously  mentioned. 

The  ends  of  decking  should  never  be  run  off  to  a  shim 
end  where  they  land  against  the  waterways,  and  a  nib 
strake  should  be  provided  as  shown  in  the  figures.  It  will 
be  seen  that  after  the  angle  across  the  ends  of  the  deck 
planks  becomes  rather  blunt,  the  nib  strake  is  either 
stopped  as  in  Fig.  140  at  the  stern  or  merely  has  the  deck 
plank  butted  against  it  as  in  Fig.  139  at  the  stem.  Very 
often,  however,  at  the  bow  the  nibbing  is  carried  to  the 
end  of  the  nib  strake.  There  is  no  fixed  rule  for  the  angle 
across  the  deck  ends  at  which  the  nibbing  may  be  left 
off.  However,  in  the  author's  opinion,  nibs  should  be  cut 
when  the  length  of  the  cut  across  the  end  of  the  deck  plank 
exceeds  one  and  one  half  times  the  width  of  the  plank. 

Standard  weather  decking  is  generally  square  in  section 
as  shown  in  Fig.  141.  The  standard  size  is  4  inches  by  4 
inches,  this  being  the  net  dimension  as  the  decking  is  laid. 
Decking  used  on  decks  below  the  weather  deck  is  often 
made  thinner,  and  is  also  frequently  made  wider  than  its 
thickness. 

To  provide  a  good  wearing  surface  all  decking  is  in- 
variably finished  with  vertical  or  edge  grain  showing  on 
top  face.  The  lumber  from  which  it  is  made  must  be  prac- 
tically perfect. 

It  is  customary  to  run  the  calking  seam  on  each  side 
of  the  deck  plank  as  shown  in  Fig.  141.  This  is  done  at 
the  mill.  The  total  opening  of  the  seam  should  not  as 
a  rule  be  greater  than  }i  inch  nor  less  than  }{q  inch.  Gen- 
eral practice  seems  to  favor  an  opening  of  about  J^2  inch. 

The  customary  minimum  width  of  nib  is  shown  in  Fig. 
143  and  general  arrangements  of  fastening  are  shown  in 
Figs.  142  and  144.  For  the  driving  of  the  spikes  used  in 
deck  fastening,  a  hole  must  be  bored  through  the  deck 
plank  but  not  necessarily  in  the  beam.     The  diameter  of 


DECK  DETAILS  149 

this  hole  is  sometimes  made  the  same  size  as  the  spike 
but  the  better  practice  seems  to  be  to  make  it  }{q  inch  less, 
which  provides  for  a  sHght  drift  of  the  spike  through  the 
plank.  Sometimes  when  the  holes  are  bored  the  latter  size 
trouble  is  experienced  by  the  decking  splitting  when  the 
fastening  is  driven.  This  generally  indicates  either  in- 
sufficient wedging  of  the  plank  or  the  use  of  a  spike  too 
large  for  the  size  of  the  decking.  If  the  spike  is  too  large 
a  better  job  will  be  obtained  by  using  a  smaller  spike 
which  will  permit  the  boring  of  the  hole  }iQ  inch  smaller 
in  diameter  than  the  size  of  the  spike.  As  before  mentioned 
no  hole  need  be  bored  in  the  beam,  but  the  spike  must  be 
so  set  that  the  chisel  point  will  cut  the  grain  of  the  wood  in 
the  beam. 

A  common  rule  for  the  size  of  deck  spikes  is  }^i  inch 
square  and  two  inches  of  length  for  each  inch  thickness  of  the 
deck,  plank.  Thus,  the  spikes  for  decking  four  inches  thick 
would  be  }i  inch  square  and  eight  inches  long.  However, 
spikes  of  this  size  will  very  often  give  trouble  by  splitting 
the  decking  when  they  are  driven  in  a  Ke  inch  diameter  hole. 
It  has  also  been  demonstrated  that  they  are  unnecessarily 
long.  Therefore  the  author  commonly  uses  a  spike  Me 
inch  less  in  square  size,  and  one  inch  less  in  length  than  that 
given  by  the  above  rule.  That  is,  the  spike  for  four-inch 
decking  would  be  Jf  e  inch  square  by  seven  inches  in  length 
and  the  hole  through  which  it  is  driven  would  be  %  inch 
in  diameter. 

Individual  opinions  upon  these  points  differ,  and  as 
the  size  of  spike  to  be  used  in  any  particular  decking 
is  always  specified  on  the  plans,  it  should  where  possible 
be  used. 

Spikes  in  the  decking  and  similar  locations  are  always 
set  down  in  counterbores  which  are  fitted  with  plugs  of 
white  pine  or  other  similar  wood  as  shown  in  Fig.  142. 
These  counterbores  are  generally  bored  with  special  bits 
called  plug  bits,  which  are  so  constructed  that  they  cut  a 
perfectly  clean  hole  of  the  exact  size  required.  The 
depth  of  the  counterbore  should  be  gauged  so  that  after 


150    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


MISCELLANEOUS  DECKING  DETAILS 


->i^Toy,i- 


COUNTER  BORE                »VHITE  PIME  PLUQ 
)H  WHITE  LEAD 


FIGURE- 14 1    SECTION  or        Bo^rsP^^^ 

WEATHE.R  OECKIMC 


\l 


F/GURE-143 


FIGURE-  142  D£rKF/.STfN.H6 


FIGURE*  I  A' A-  sMowiwe  arrahgemeht 

OF    F^STENINC 


DECK  DETAILS  151 

the  spike  is  set  down  snug  there  will  be  from  %  to  %  inch 
of  depth  left  for  the  plug.  The  plugs  are  then  dipped  in 
thick  white  lead  and  tapped  down  against  the  spike  head. 
They  should  fit  tight  in  the  counterbores. 

A  common  rule  for  the  size  of  plugs  is:  Two  times  the 
diameter  of  the  spike  plus  }/s  inch.  Thus,  the  diameter 
of  plug  for  >^  inch  spikes  would  be  l^i  inch,  and  for  a  % 
inch  spikes  would  be  %  inch,  etc.  Where  spikes  have 
extra  large  heads  it  may  be  necessary  to  add  }i  inch  to  the 
size  given  by  this  rule. 

HATCH  DETAU^S 

In  general,  a  hatch  is  any  opening  in  the  deck,  rec- 
tangular in  shape,  and  which  is  fitted  with  a  coaming. 
They  are  framed  in  the  deck  for  various  purposes.  A 
cargo  hatch  is  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of  cargo. 
An  engine  hatch  is  framed  to  make  way  for  the  ship's  engines 
and  also  to  permit  the  shipping  or  unshipping  of  various 
portions  of  the  engines  in  case  of  repairs  and  replacements. 
The  boiler  hatch  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  boilers  as 
does  the  engine  hatch  to  the  engines.  There  may  be 
small  hatches  framed  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  permit 
ingress  or  egress  to  and  from  a  compartment,  or  they  may  be 
framed  over  the  bunkers  for  coaling  purposes,  although 
for  the  latter,  circular  manholes  with  metal  frames  and 
covers  are  more  often  used. 

Any  hatch  directly  exposed  to  the  weather  must  be 
fitted  with  covers  and  tarpaulins  so  fixed  that  water  cannot 
gain  admission  to  the  hold.  Cargo  hatches  in  decks  under 
the  weather  deck  are  commonly  fitted  with  covers  so  that 
cargo  may  be  stowed  over  the  hatches,  but  they  are  not 
fitted  with  tarpaulins  or  made  watertight. 

Where  any  hatch  is  fitted  with  covers,  the  covers  must 
be  so  supported  that  they  will  carry  any  load  that  may  be 
placed  upon  them.  In  hatches  below  the  weather  deck 
this  load  is,  of  course,  the  weight  of  the  cargo  on  top  of  the 
hatch  covers.  In  the  weather  deck  it  may  be  either  the 
weight  of  cargo  or  the  weight  of  water  that  may  by  accident 


152    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


HATCH  DETAILS 

AS  IN  WEATHER  DECK  HATCH 


J ,.-.-                                               /                                                                     L^l 

n 

— -       SJDECOAMmG/     ^ 

r=^^ 

? 

; 

-/ " *■ 

B 

.U ' 

5 

1 

RID6E  BEAM 

COAHlH^ 

fi 

1 

A-*— 

END 

10 

•0 

^rofi^^ArratAM 

COAM,N9 

! 

^ 

^ 

3 

4 

SIOE  COAMINCr 

-■ 

r 

A-»— 

PLAN  OF  H^TCH  WITH  COVERS  REMOVED 


FLAT  tftOH  BAK 


StO£  COAMINQ 


/IHQLE  mOH 


HATCH  COVER. 


f^lDGE  BEAM 


)ViT»  LOC/f  BAIfS 


SCR£H'  OK  CLINCH  BOLT 
JKON  CH/1FJM0  BAR 


SHOtVING    STRONG  BACK  SUPPORTS  AMD  Pf^OTECTiNQ  IHOHS 
FLATIROfi  BA/^ 


EAID  COAMIliC 


SCKEW  OH  CLINCH  BOLT 


ROhj    Ctty-^F/rttj  BAH. 


se:ctiqn-b-b 
FIGURE-14.5 


DECK  DETAILS  153 

be  taken  aboard  in  a  heavy  sea,  according  to  whether  or 
not  a  deck  load  is  carried.  This  requirement  that  the  covers 
be  strong  enough  to  carry  heavy  loads,  necessitates,  in 
the  case  of  large  hatches  such  as  cargo  hatches,  the  fitting 
of  a  removable  system  of  beams  under  the  covers,  one 
type  of  which  has  been  detailed  in  Figs.  145  and  146. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  arrangements  of  these 
beams  in  common  use  but  they  all  consist  essentially  in  a 
number  of  fore  and  aft  beams  having  their  ends  supported 
at  the  coamings,  with  intermediate  support  furnished 
by  thwartship  beams  called  strongbacks,  the  ends  of 
the  latter  being  also  supported  at  the  coamings,  and 
both  the  beams  and  strongbacks  being  removable.  The 
number  and  size  of  beams  and  strongbacks  to  be  fitted 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  hatch  and  the  load  which  they 
must  carry.  The  end  supports  must  be  so  arranged  as  to 
permit  the  ready  shipping  and  unshipping  of  all  beams  and 
strongbacks,  and  at  the  same  time  must  be  strong  enough 
to  carry  the  load  that  may  come  upon  them. 

The  center,  or  ridge  beam,  in  weather  deck  hatches 
is  generally  rabbetted  for  the  covers.  In  lower  deck 
hatches  the  covers  are  more  commonly  butted  together 
at  the  center  as  shown  in  Fig.  146. 

Referring  to  Fig.  145  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ridge  and 
fore  and  aft  beams  rest  on  top  of  the  strongbacks,  and  that 
they  are  dapped  at  the  ends  into  the  coamings  as  far 
as  the  back  of  the  rabbet.  Since  this  depth  of  dap  does 
not  furnish  bearing  sufficient  to  support  the  beams  hard- 
wood wedges,  as  shown  in  Section  B-B  are  fitted  under 
each  end  of  these  beams.  These  wedges  must  be 
thoroughly  fastened  with  either  button-headed  bolts  or 
boat  spikes.  The  strongbacks  in  this  figure  are  supported 
in  angle  iron  hangers  set  on  the  face  of  the  coamings.  It 
will  be  noted  that  these  hangers  are  fastened  with  a  large 
number  of  countersunk  head  drift  bolts,  and  also  that  they 
have  lock  bars  set  into  the  wood  to  furnish  the  additional 
required  bearing.  Below  the  hangers  it  is  customary  to  place 
small  hardwood  wedges  to  prevent  the  cargo  tackle  and 
blocks  fouling  on  the  hanger. 


154    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 
HATCH    DETAIL 

AS  IN  1-OWE.R  DE.CK  HATCHES 


END 


COAtAiHQ 


h- 


r- 


V- 


5- 


SIDE  COAWIW<^/ 


•fir 


%i 


A-»n 


^    ^ 


Sd   d?* 


A^^ 


l'^\i 


Sjd£  coaming 


PLAN  OF  H/jTCH   WITH    COVERS  REMOVED 


SIDE  COAMlNd  FLAT  f RON  BAH  fMITCH  COVCftS 

D£.CKJN<i 


£2SLS. 


^/ROM     CHAFIHd  BAR/ 

SECTION' A'A 


STKOHQ  BACK 


£HD   COAMM^  FL/JT  IROH  BAR. 

OECHtHQ 


/¥^rCH    COVERS  STROHd   BACK 


MATCH  B£AM 


/Ron   CHAFING   BAR 

SECTION 'B-B 


riGURE-/46 


DECK  DETAILS  155 

In  Fig.  146,  due  to  the  smaller  depth  of  the  hatch,  the 
beams  and  strongbacks  must  be  set  in  the  same  Hne  and  all 
are  supported  by  means  of  angle  iron  hangers.  Here  the  fore 
and  aft  beams  are  not  continuous  but  are  cut  in  between 
the  strongbacks.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  toes  of 
the  hangers  are  turned  over  at  the  top  to  furnish  additional 
bearing  to  that  given  by  the  fastening,  and  that  in  addition 
to  this  the  hangers  for  the  strongbacks  have  one  lock  bar. 

In  many  cases  the  angle  iron  hangers  on  the  coamings 
are  arranged  to  be  set  in  flush  with  the  face  of  the  coam- 
ing, leaving  these  hatchways  clear  of  all  obstructions. 

All  exposed  corners  and  wood  surfaces  on  cargo  hatches 
should  be  protected  by  iron  work  or  sheathing.  The  entire 
inner  face  of  the  coamings  and  exposed  hatch  beams  and  fore 
and  afters  is  generally  lined  with  heavy  sheet  iron,  or  close 
spaced  iron  bars  which  should  be  fastened  with  either  large 
wood  screws  or  track  spikes  having  countersunk  heads. 
The  rabbet  should  be  protected  with  an  angle  iron  and  the 
lower  inside  corner  with  a  quarter  round  chafing  bar.  Often 
the  sheet  iron  sheathing  is  turned  under  the  angle  iron  at  the 
top  and  the  chafing  bar  at  the  bottom.  The  tops  of  the 
coamings  are  generally  protected  with  flat  iron  bars  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  All  of  these  irons  may  be  properly  called 
chafing  irons.  They  should  be  fastened  either  with  heavy 
wood  screws  or  track  spikes  all  of  which  should  have  counter- 
sunk heads. 

HATCH  COVERS  AND  MISCELLANEOUS 

Hatch  covers  are  generally  built  up  of  two  planks  edge 
bolted  together  as  shown  in  Fig.  147.  The  total  width  of 
the  cover  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  hatch  and  the 
number  of  covers  to  be  fitted,  but  it  should  not  exceed 
24  inches.  Narrower  widths  are  even  better.  Handholds 
are  fitted  at  the  two  opposite  corners  of  the  cover.  An 
enlarged  detail  of  one  style  of  handhold  is  shown  in  Fig. 
148.  No  matter  what  style  of  handhold  may  be  fitted  it 
must  in  no  case  project  above  the  surface  of  the  hatch 
cover.  The  opening  underneath  the  bar  should  be  large 
enough  to  admit  all  of  the  fingers  of  an  ordinary  man's  hand. 


156    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

In  addition,  the  hatch  covers  are  numbered,  generally 
with  roman  numerals  cut  in  with  a  chisel,  beginning  with 
number  one  at  the  forward  end  of  the  hatch  on  each  side. 
Since  there  will  be  two  covers  numbered  one,  and  two 
numbered  two,  etc.,  they  must  in  addition  to  the  numbers 
have  the  letter  P  or  the  letter  S  cut  on  them,  according  as 
they  belong  on  the  port  or  starboard  side  of  the  hatch. 

Weather  deck  hatches  must  be  fitted  with  canvas 
tarpaulins  to  make  them  watertight.  There  are  two  gen- 
eral methods  of  fastening  these  tarpaulins  in  place  which 
are  shown  in  Figs.  149  and  150.  In  Fig.  149  the  fastening 
consists  of  a  line  of  cleats,  usually  cast  steel,  spaced  from  18 
to  24  inches  apart  around  the  hatch,  and  hatch  battens  of 
flat  iron  bars  under  which  the  tarpaulin  is  laid,  the  battens 
being  secured  with  hardwood  wedges  driven  in  the  j  aws  of  the 
cleats  as  shown.  Battens  of  hardwood  may  be  used  in 
place  of  the  flat  iron  bar.  In  Fig.  150  a  line  of  heavy 
staples,  made  usually  of  %  inch  diameter  stock  is  set  around 
the  coamings  at  about  the  same  spacing  as  would  be  used 
for  cleats.  A  wood  hatch  batten  is  used  on  each  side  and 
end  of  the  hatch,  these  battens  being  of  hardwood  and 
slotted  to  slip  over  the  staples.  The  tarpaulin  has  grom- 
mets  or  eyes  worked  in  it  so  that  it  also  may  be  slipped  over 
the  staples.  The  wedges  are  half  round  in  section  and  are 
driven  through  the  opening  of  the  staple. 

Practice  on  large  steamers  seems  to  favor  the  cleat  and 
iron  or  hardwood  batten  fastening  as  shown  in  Fig.  149. 
On  small  Pacific  Coast  steamers  the  staple  and  hardwood 
batten  arrangement  is  quite  generally  used. 

In  addition  to  this  fastening  for  the  tarpaulins  it  is  quite 
common  to  fit  either  two  heavy  iron  straps  or  two  wood 
beams  over  the  tarpaulins  to  keep  both  the  covers  and 
tarpaulins  down  when  the  ship  is  pitching  heavily  as  in  a 
storm.  These  straps  or  beams  extend  fore  and  aft  for  the 
full  length  of  the  hatch,  one  being  fitted  on  each  side 
in  line  with  the  centers  of  the  covers.  They  are  securely 
fastened  at  the  ends  with  bolts,  fitted  with  handled  nuts, 
the  bolts  being  so  arranged  or  hinged  that  they  will  drop 
out  of  the  way  when  the  hatches  are  open. 


DECK  DETAILS 


157 


HATCH    DETAILS 


HATCH    COVERS 

-LENGTH  TO   S\}IT  HATCH- 

H 

*            — — "-^- — — -^-^              1 

-I0^ 

I                1 

T 

k 

i,                                4 

"^f 

\^    96  0/tl-V/tNIZE.D    CLINCH  BOLTS.RiNGS 
COUMTERBORED    /<ND    PLUGQED 

FIGURE"  147       PLAN    SHOWING  ARRANGEMENT 


H-^BOUT  3^'^ 


ENLARGED    DETAIL   OF   CORNER 
r   IQUfTE''/^0         SHOWINq  PROPORTIONS  OF  HAND  /fOLD 


HATCH     CLEATS  AND   STAPLES 


TAnPAUUU 


TARPAUUM 


IRON    M^yrCH 
BATTEN 


L^Q  aCREW^j 


nGURE-149 


FIGURE-150 


FOREWORD  TO  CHAPTER  V 

There  are  several  special  operations  connected  with  ship 
work,  particularly  shipsmithing,  sparmaking,  and  rigging, 
which  will  not  be  explained  in  detail,  as  they  are  highly 
specialized  trades  in  themselves.  Even  though  the  iron 
work  turned  out  by  the  shipsmiths,  and  the  spars  and 
rigging  prepared  by  the  sparmakers  and  riggers,  generally 
require  some  woodwork  preparation  when  they  are  fitted 
in  place,  it  is  usually  of  such  simple  nature  as  to  require 
little  or  no  comment  here. 

This  final  chapter  takes  up  the  problem  of  hull  planking, 
and  ends  with  a  general  discussion  of  joiner  work.  The 
previous  chapter,  it  will  be  remembered,  ended  with  the 
laying  of  the  decking,  and  it  has  been  mentioned  that  the 
planking  of  the  hull  would  generally  be  under  way  at  the 
same  time.  In  fact,  it  is  often  started  before  any  decking 
is  laid,  and  in  any  case  should  be  under  way  as  soon  as  the 
ceiling  has  been  completed. 

The  frames,  as  with  the  ceiling,  must  be  dubbed  fair  so 
that  the  planks  will  fay  properly  to  the  timbers.  Where  no 
diagonal  strapping  or  planking  is  used  the  dubbing  is 
generally  done  at  the  same  time  as  the  planking,  it  being 
necessary  only  to  keep  the  dubbers  far  enough  ahead  of  the 
planking  gang  to  be  out  of  the  way.  But  where  the  con- 
struction calls  for  either  diagonal  steel  strapping,  or 
diagonal  planking,  the  entire  frame  should  be  dubbed  fair 
before  either  is  applied.  And,  of  course,  the  planking 
proper  cannot  proceed  until  the  diagonal  stuff  is  in  place. 
The  only  exception  to  this  would  be  where  the  steel  strap- 
ping ends  at  the  heads  of  the  floors  in  which  case  the  gar- 
boards  and  some  of  the  bottom  planking  may  be  run  on 
while,  or  even  before,  the  steel  strapping  is  being  placed. 

Some  portions  of  the  hull  erections  may  be  completed 

158 


FOREWORD  TO  CHAPTER  V  159 

before  the  decking  is  laid,  but  the  bulkheads  enclosing 
them  cannot  be  built  until  after  the  decking  is  laid.  Hence 
it  is  quite  common  to  leave  all  of  these  erections,  with  the 
exception  of  solid  work  around  the  stern,  where  used,  until 
after  the  main  deck  has  been  completed. 

As  soon  as  the  decks  have  been  laid  over  the  hull  erec- 
tions or,  if  there  are  no  hull  erections,  as  soon  as  the 
uppermost  hull  deck  is  laid,  the  joiner  houses  may  be 
started.  The  completion  of  the  joiner  houses  will  in  the 
main  complete  the  construction  work  on  the  ship  and  it  is 
at  this  point  in  most  cases,  assuming  that  the  planking  and 
calking  has  been  completed  that  the  ship  is  launched. 
Where  work  is  being  rushed,  ships  are  frequently  launched 
as  soon  as  the  planking  and  calking  is  finished,  regardless 
of  the  work  on  the  joiner  houses  since  this  work  can  be 
carried  on  after  the  ship  is  in  the  water. 

Masts  are  generally  not  stepped  until  after  the  vessel  has 
been  launched  and  the  setting  up  of  the  rigging  which  has 
been  previously  prepared  by  the  riggers  naturally  follows 
the  stepping  of  the  masts.  It  is  the  best  practice  to  have 
the  upper  ends  of  the  standing  rigging  attached  to  the  masts 
before  they  are  stepped. 

There  are  many  items  of  equipment  which  may  or  may 
not  be  placed  upon  the  ship  before  launching.  Ironwork 
such  as  the  stem  iron,  side,  or  cheek  plates  on  the  stern- 
and  rudder-posts,  arch  reinforcing  plates,  and  similar  details 
should  all  be  in  place  before  launching.  Likewise  all  sea 
chests  should  be  complete  and  fitted  with  strainers  and 
valves.  All  bollards,  chocks,  mooring  rings,  hawse  pipes, 
etc.,  should  be  in  their  places,  and  properly  fastened,  so  that 
means  will  be  provided  for  attaching  lines  or  cables  for 
checking  the  headway  of  the  vessel  after  it  leaves  the  ways 
during  launching,  and  for  mooring  to  the  dock  or  outfitting 
pier  later  on.  Loose  equipment,  and  boiler  and  engine- 
room  equipment  including  the  boilers,  main  propelling 
engines  and  auxiliaries,  are  not  generally  installed  until 
after  the  vessel  is  in  the  water.  The  propeller  and  tail 
shaft,  with  its  bearings,  are  often  shipped  while  the  vessel  is 


160    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

still  on  the  stocks  and  this,  where  possible,  is  most  desirable 
as  it  saves  docking  the  vessel  to  ship  these  items. 

Rudders,  whether  of  wood  or  steel,  are  more  readily- 
shipped  when  the  vessel  is  still  on  the  stocks,  but  if  so 
shipped  they  must  be  very  strongly  shored  in  the  midship, 
or  fore  and  aft,  position  to  prevent  their  swinging  about  and 
doing  damage  not  only  to  the  rudder  itself,  but  the  ship  as 
well,  during  launching. 

During  the  stages  of  construction  covered  in  this  chapter, 
the  order  of  procedure  depends  largely  upon  the  order  in 
which  materials  and  outfit  are  supplied  to  the  yard.  It  is 
also  often  a  matter  of  choice  or  custom  on  the  part  of  the 
yard  management.  This  applies  particularly  to  the  state  of 
completion  at  which  the  vessel  may  be  launched.  While  in 
most  localities  the  vessel  is  launched  in  a  more  or  less 
uncompleted  condition,  in  some  it  has  been  the  custom  to 
launch  vessels,  particularly  sailing  vessels,  complete,  with 
all  rigging  and  equipment,  ready  for  the  sea.  Steamers  are 
seldom  held  on  the  stocks  until  completed  in  every  respect. 

Since  the  order  of  procedure  may  vary  considerably 
the  tabulation  as  given  in  other  chapters  is  omitted. 


CHAPTER  V 
PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK 
DIAGONAL  STRAPPING  AND  PLANKING] 

Large  vessels  must  be  reinforced  with  either  diagonal 
iron  strapping,  or  diagonal  planking.  While  both  of  these 
arrangements  are  quite  old,  the  use  of  diagonal  planking 
did  not  until  quite  recently  come  into  favor. 

Both  systems  are  applied  directly  on  the  outside  of  the 
frames.  For  either  to  be  efficient  and  accomplish  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  intended,  requires  extreme  care  in  fitting 
so  that  fair  contact  with  the  frames  is  secured  at  all  points. 

Diagonal  iron  strapping  generally  consists  of  a  wide 
band,  set  at  or  slightly  below  the  sheer  line,  extending  from 
approximately  abreast  the  stern  post  to  a  short  distance 
abaft  the  stem.  As  shown  in  Fig.  151  the  diagonal  straps 
are  attached  to  this  band  and  so  arranged  that  they  cross 
in  the  frame  bays,  where  they  are  riveted  to  each  other. 
Both  the  straps  and  the  wide  plate  at  the  top  are  dapped 
into  the  frames  so  that  their  outer  surfaces  do  not  extend 
outside  the  fair  surface  of  the  frames.  Each  strap  is  fas- 
tened at  each  frame  with  at  least  one  countersunk  head 
drift  bolt,  the  best  arrangement  being  to  stagger  these  on 
the  frames  as  shown  in  the  figure.  If  two  bolts  are  driven 
to  each  frame  the  stagger  rule  will  of  course  not  hold  good. 

The  diagonal  straps  should  extend  downward  around  the 
bilge  and  onto  the  ends,  or  heads,  of  the  fioors  at  least  24 
inches,  where  they  should  be  extra  fastened. 

Around  the  bilge  they  are  often  set  or  dapped  in  deep 
enough  to  permit  dubbing  the  frame  flat  under  each  strake 
of  planking  which  saves  the  expense  of  hollowing  out  the 
faying  surface  of  the  planking  to  fit  a  rounded  bilge.  As 
has  been  mentioned  before,  it  is  best  where  possible  to  do 
the  dubbing  before  the  strapping  is  fitted,  as  then  there  is 
no  uncertainty  about  how  deep  the  strapping  must  be 
11  161 


162    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     163 

dapped  into  the  frame  to  clear  the  planking.  The  daps 
should  not  be  deeper  than  absolutely  necessary  as  they  in 
any  case  tend  to  weaken  the  frame. 

Diagonal  planking,  or  sheathing  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  laid  in  two  courses,  each  course  being  at  an  angle 
of  about  45  degrees  to  the  keel  and  about  square  with  the 
other  course.  It  covers  the  entire  frame  of  the  vessel 
from  stem  to  stern.  The  frame  bays  at  the  tops  and  along 
the  keel  are  chocked  to  provide  continuous  fastening 
surface  for  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  diagonal  stuff. 
This  chocking  has  been  shown  in  previous  figures. 

At  the  ends  of  the  ship,  separate  rabbets  are  cut  for  the 
diagonal  planking  where  possible  so  that  the  end  fastening 
of  the  diagonals  will  not  land  in  way  of  the  hood  end  fas- 
tening of  the  outside  planking.  Along  the  keel,  and  above 
the  shaft  log  at  the  stern  there  is  generally  but  one  rabbet 
for  both  the  diagonal  and  outside  planking. 

As  before  explained,  the  entire  frame  of  the  vessel  must 
be  dubbed  fair  before  diagonal  planking  can  be  apphed. 

It  is  customary  to  start  the  diagonal  planking  at  a  point 
near  midship,  working  thence  each  way  to  the  ends  of  the, 
ship.  While  the  planking  as  started  should  be  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  keel,  it  will  be  found  as  the 
work  progresses  fore  and  aft,  that  one  edge  will  buck  up, 
or  refuse  to  fay  to  the  frame,  around  the  bilge  when  the 
plank  is  bent  to  place.  This  is  due  to  the  shape  of  the  ship 
and  the  greater  distance  from  end  to  end  of  the  vessel 
around  the  frame  at  the  top  than  along  the  keel,  which 
soon  causes  the  upper  ends  of  the  diagonals  to  fall  behind 
the  lower  ends.  When  this  point  is  reached  it  is  necessary 
to  take  off  what  is  known  as  a  spiling.  This  is  done  by 
springing  a  thin  wood  batten  about  %  inch  thick  and 
6  inches  wide,  around  the  frames  in  the  position  of  the 
next  strake  of  planking  to  be  fitted.  This  batten,  known 
as  a  spiling  batten,  is  allowed  to  lay  in  its  natural  position, 
and  the  amount  that  it  springs  away  from  the  edge  of  the 
last  strake  of  planking  will  indicate  the  taper  that  must  be 
cut  on  the  next  strake  to  correct  the  work.     At  some 


164    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

points  in  the  ship  it  may  be  necessary  to  take  a  spiling 
every  fifth  or  sixth  strake.  The  operation  of  spiling  is 
explained  in  detail  further  on  in  this  chapter. 

The  diagonal  planking  is  fastened  with  common  gal- 
vanized wire  nails  just  sufficient  to  hold  it  up  against  the 
frames  until  the  outside  planking  is  put  on.  The  nails  for 
the  first  course  are  generally  shorter  than  those  driven  in  the 
second  course,  each  being  of  such  length  as  to  penetrate  the 
frame  for  about  the  same  distance.  They  are  driven  at  the 
extreme  outer  edge  of  the  frames  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  the  planking  fastening.  This  arrangement  of  the 
fastening  also  serves  to  mark  out  the  location  of  the  frames 
which  have  now  been  completely  covered  up.  In  addition 
to  this,  however,  the  locations  of  the  edges  of  all  timbers  in 
the  frames  should  be  accurately  scribed  on  the  outside  of 
the  diagonal  planking,  so  that  the  outside  plank  fastening 
may  be  properly  located. 

HULL  PLANKING 

The  most  important  single  operation  in  connection  with 
the  planking  is  without  doubt  the  lining.  Upon  the  man 
who  does  this  work,  called  the  liner,  depends  not  only  the 
ease  or  difficulty  as  the  case  may  be  with  which  the  planking 
goes  on,  but  very  often  the  neat  and  shipshape  appearance 
of  the  vessel  itself.  Poor  lining  will  make  hard  planking 
and  in  addition  generally  spoils  the  appearance  of  the  vessel 
through  having  seams  running  in  unfair  lines. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustration  a  definite  problem  has 
been  assumed. 

The  first  step  in  lining  is  the  selection  of  the  frame 
having  the  greatest  girth  from  keel  rabbet  to  the  upper- 
most deck  line.  This  is  often  done  on  the  loft  floor,  in 
which  case  the  strakes  of  planking  may  then  be  laid  out 
full  size  on  the  selected  frame  as  shown  in  Fig.  152.  This 
figure  shows  the  frame  of  greatest  girth  in  a  shelter  deck 
vessel,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  the  uppermost  strake, 
called  the  sheer  strake,  is  above  the  deck  line,  and  is  not 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    165 

treated  as  a  strake  of  planking.  It  would  therefore  be 
without  taper  fore  and  aft.  If,  however,  it  is  desired  to 
taper  the  sheer  strake  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  other 
planking  it  should  be  figured  in  the  girth. 

It  should  be  further  noted  that  this  figure  shows  diagonal 
planking.  If  diagonal  strapping  is  used  the  planks  would 
be  laid  off  on  the  frame  proper.  The  widths  are  laid  off 
on  the  outside  of  the  planking. 

Planking  in  general  may  be  divided  into  two  groups. 
The  first  would  be  the  bottom  planking,  including  the 
garboards,  the  strakes  of  which  are  run  either  with  no  taper 
or  an  irregular  taper,  and  which  are  called  here  untapered 
planking.  The  second  group,  comprising  the  balance  of  the 
hull  planking  is  generally  run  with  a  uniform  taper,  and  is 
here  called  tapered  planking.  The  point  where  the  change 
is  made  from  the  untapered  to  the  tapered  planking  is 
largely  a  matter  of  choice  and  judgment  with  the  liner, 
and  cannot  be  definitely  fixed  by  any  rule.  In  this  problem 
all  of  the  garboard  and  bottom  plank  are  considered  as 
untapered  and  they  occupy  190  inches  of  the  total  girth 
of  624  inches  leaving  434  inches  for  the  tapered  strakes. 
This,  of  course,  at  the  greatest  girth. 

Having  laid  out  the  planking  as  above  indicated,  and 
tentatively  fixed  the  point  of  change  from  the  untapered  to 
the  tapered  planking,  the  liner  will  then  estimate  the 
amount  of  room  required  by  the  tapered  planking  at  the 
ends  of  ship. 

Generally,  tapered  strakes  may  have  a  total  taper 
from  their  widest  point  to  the  ends  of  the  ship  of  from 
1>^  to  3  inches  depending  upon  the  shape  of  the  hull.  The 
taper  at  the  stem,  will  as  a  rule  be  less  than  that  at  the 
extreme  stern,  but  will  probably  be  more  than  the  taper 
measured  at  a  point  abreast  the  stern  post.  In  this  problem 
it  is  assumed  that  the  liner  has  tentatively  decided  upon 
a  minimum  width  of  5J^  inches  at  the  stem  and  Q}i  inches 
abreast  the  stern  post,  for  the  7}^  inch  strakes.  Since  all  of 
the  tapered  planking  is  assumed  to  have  a  uniform  taper,  or 
percentage  of  taper,  the  corresponding  width  of  the  entire 


166    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PLANKING    LAYOUT 

ON  SECTION    HAVING    THE    GREATEST  QIRTH 
SHELTER  DECK 


SHECW  STWA> 


.  3SOG/>ffBOARD-IS5fe' 

lirar2V>  GAR  BOARDS 

.  Z-srKAkES  -\^7r^^ 


2-STWAKES-i3>fe" 


FIGURE-152 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     167 

belt  of  tapered  planking  at  the  two  points  may  be  quickly 
estimated. 

Now,  5}4  inches  are  roughly  73  percent  of  7^  inches 
and  Q}i  inches  are  roughly  83  percent  of  7}4  inches.  The 
the  total  girth  occupied  by  the  tapered  strakes  in  Fig.  152, 
the  widest  point,  is  434  inches.  Seventy-three  percent  of  434 
inches  is  approximately  316  inches,  hence  with  the  above 
assumed  taper  the  lower  edge  of  the  tapered  planking  would 
land  316  inches  down  from  the  deck  line  at  the  stem.  Again, 
83  percent  of  434  inches  is  approximately  360  inches,  and 
this  would  be  the  distance  down  from  the  deck  line  abreast 
the  stern  post  for  the  lower  edge  of  the  taper  planking. 

If,  after  measuring  316  inches  down  from  the  deck  line 
at  the  stem,  the  remaining  distance  to  top  of  the  keel, 
is  190  inches  or  less  the  taper  assumed  forward  may 
generally  be  used.  The  distance  remaining  to  the  top 
of  the  keel  at  the  stern  post  after  measuring  360  inches 
down  from  the  deck  line,  may  very  likely  be  more  than 
190  inches,  which  will  not  indicate  that  the  taper  can- 
not be  used,  but  that  a  stealer,  or  possibly  more  than  one, 
will  have  to  be  fitted  as  shown  in  Fig.  153.  The  amount 
of  taper  which  can,  or  should,  be  used  on  the  tapered 
planking  at  the  stern  depends  greatly  upon  the  shape  of 
the  stern.  Very  often  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  plank- 
ing lines  up  to  the  tuck  very  sharply,  in  order  that 
the  tapered  plank  above  may  not  have  too  much  edge 
set,  and  in  such  cases  the  liner  may  disregard  the  tapered 
planking  at  the  stern  until  such  time  as  he  sees  that  the 
planking  will  run  fair  into  the  tuck  on  a  natural  line — 
a  natural  line  being  one  that  requires  little  or  no  edge  setting  . 
of  the  plank. 

Having  established  the  ploints  at  the  stem  and  the  stern, 
post  which  he  will  attempt  to  reach  with  the  untapered 
planking  the  liner  will  proceed  to  run  in  the  garboards 
and  bottom  planking,  lining,  or  laying  out,  each  strake 
individually  on  the  frames.  He  will  in  all  probability 
spile  the  garboard  hoods,  to  throw  their  upper  edges  on  a 
more  natural  line.     The  balance' of  the  strakes  included  in 


168    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

untapered  planking  he  will  either  run  with  slight  taper, 
no  taper,  or  with  stealers  as  may  be  required  to  reach 
the  point  where  the  tapered  planking  can  begin.  Each 
strake  will  be  so  lined  as  to  keep  it  in  the  most  natural 
position  and  for  that  reason  they  will  most  likely  vary 
considerable  in  taper  at  the  ends.  Spilings  will  be  taken 
only  where  absolutely  necessary.  After  the  untapered 
planking  is  all  on,  the  line  where  the  taper  planking  begins 
should  be  practically  a  natural  line.  The  planking  will 
then  be  at  the  stage  shown  in  Fig.  153. 

The  frequent  adjustments  of  taper  necessary  to  keep 
the  untapered  planking  near  natural  lines  will  in  all  proba- 
bility prevent  the  liner  exactly  reaching  the  original 
points  selected  on  the  stem  and  stern  post.  In  this  problem 
it  is  assumed  that  the  remaining  girth  for  tapered  planking, 
at  the  stem  is  312  inches  and  at  the  stern  post  352  inches, 
which  it  will  be  seen  are  somewhat  less  than  the  original 
girths  decided  upon.  It  is  also  assumed  here  that  the  tapered 
planking  begins  on  the  same  strake  at  the  stem  and  stern, 
but  this  is  by  no  means  an  invariable  rule.  Quite  fre- 
quently the  shape  of  the  stern  will  require  a  different 
number  of  tapered  strakes  from  that  used  at  the  stem. 
The  principles  of  determining  the  taper,  however,  remain 
the  same. 

Girths  for  tapered  planking  must  now  be  measured  at 
frequent  intervals  as  shown  in  Fig.  154.  The  number  of 
girths  shown  here  is  suitable  for  small  boats  only.  In  large 
vessels  a  greater  number  should  be  taken.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  take  them  at  even  intervals  as  shown.  In 
fact  an  experienced  liner  will  check  girths  wherever  he 
suspects  there  is  a  necessity  for  so  doing,  keeping  a  record 
of  them  by  merely  noting  the  frame  numbers  at  which 
they  were  measured.  For  the  purposes  of  this  problem 
they  have  been  numbered  from  one  to  six.  The  girths 
as  measured  may  be  set  down  in  a  table  as  shown  in  Fig. 
155. 

Now,  the  widths  of  the  strakes  at  the  greatest  girth 
of  434  inches  are  9^,  8^,  and  7}i  inches  respectively.     To 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    169 


\ 

^ 

X 

u 

sc 

i  \ 

Si 

S    \ 

/ 

h 

?       \     . 

/ 

V 

>«- 

mv 

iL 

\^ 

m\\\\\t 

< 

v 

o 

y 

\ 

WW  \  \  \  \  \  \ 

2 

I 

\\\\\\\\\\\l 

2 

J 

WWWWW 

z 

t 

WWWWW 

< 

Id 

www  \  \\  \ 

J 

1 

\\\\\\\\\l 

Q. 

s 

\\\\\\\u 

O 
Ui 

J 

\\\\\\\\1 

bJ 

U 

WWWil 

Q. 

o 

D 

\\\\\\1 

? 

z 

\\\\\  1 

z 

Will  1 

3 

z 

lull  1 

111  U  1 

li 

[\ 

UUilJiUl 

? 

o 

T 

1 

z 

U 

z 

r 

■"  "UJ 

o 

< 

( 

u 

IT 

O 

J 

X 

^ 

L. 

Ql 

U 

or 

3 

mi 

1 

. 

u 
J 

Q. 
< 

e 

lllu 

o 

u 

H 

U 

UJ 

II 1 1 1 1 1 

z 

0! 

tt 

£ 

5 

III 

2 

1? 

s 

z 

v> 

ill 

z 
< 

ft 

V) 

2 

^ 

li 

i 

0 

l_ 

z 

s 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

^ 

QJ 

-J 

o 

III 

Q 

w 

O 

Q. 

2: 

fill 

UJ 

J 

/ 

1  11 

lij 

QL 

z 

3 

.,  , 

ri 

// 

llllll 

P 

170    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PLANKING   LiN/NG 

EXAMPLE  SAME,  AStN  FtQURE-ISt 


\l-tWE  OF  UHTAPEKEV  PLAHKIH^ 

FIGURE-ISA- GIRTHS 


GIRTH  TABLE 

Wo.  I  312    INCHES 


376    INCHES 


No.  3 


434    INCHES 


Na» 


424    INCHES 


No.  5 


?9g    iriCHS? 


Wo.  6 


352    INCHES 


FIGURE-155 


PLANKING  AT  GIRTH  NSS 

IS  -  STR/>KES  -  9y   =      /4Z<4  INCHES 

14  -  STRAKES  -  <)4'    »      /i9     INCHES 

£3  -  STRIKES  -  7H'    «      l72)ilWCHES 

TOT/VL'-f34-|f^<;Hf,S 

FIGURE- 156 


TABULATION   OF  PLANK   WIDTHS  AT  ALL  GIRTHS 


STRAKES 

qiRTN  N«l 

QIRTN  r«*2 

QlffTH  1*93 

QlfTTH  IW4 

OIRTH  fWS 

QiRTH  «S6 

7>18." 

5'^ 

6>4- 

7>'t" 

Ifsz 

6»5i. 

6?i2- 

es^" 

eya" 

7%" 

«>i" 

8f*6 

Jifft,- 

6»%» 

9W 

6»?32- 

8^" 

s;^- 

^?i^- 

«'^ 

7«>4i 

FIGURE- 157 


QRAPH\G    METHOD  or   FINDINQ  PLANK  TAPERS 


t/^IOTHS  AT  GIRTH  NSt 
ntOTMS  /IT  GIRTH  M» 6 
V^IOTMS  AT  QIRTH  MiZ 


tVIDTHS  AT  GIRTH  US S 
WIOTMS  AT  GIRTH  MS  ■I- 

PIGURE-iSe 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     171 

find  the  required  width  at  any  other  girth  less  than  the 
greatest  girth  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  percentage 
that  the  lesser  girth  bears  to  the  greatest  girth,  then  this 
same  percentage  of  the  width  of  the  strake  at  the  greatest 
girth  will  give  the  required  width  at  the  lesser  girth.  This 
operation  may  be  set  down  as  follows : 

Required:    Width  of  strakes  at  girth  No.  2. 

Greatest  girth  equals  434  inches. 

Girth  No.  2  equals  376  inches. 

376  is  86.7  per  cent,  of  434. 
Then  86,7  per  cent,  of  7}4  inches  equals  6K  inches. 

86.7  per  cent,  of  S}4  inches  equals  7%  inches. 

86.7  per  cent,  of  9^  inches  equals  SJ4  inches. 

and  6H,  7^,  and  8H  inches  will  be  the  required  widths  of  planking  at 
girth  No.  2.  A  like  calculation  is  made  for  each  girth  less  than  the 
greatest  girth.  It  will  be  easier  for  some  to  set  the  calculation  down  in 
the  following  form : 

376  X  15       .,/  .     , 

=  o}i  inches. 


434X2 

376  X  17 
434X2 

376  X  19 


=  7%  inches. 
=  83^  inches. 


434  X2 

After  the  widths  are  calculated  for  each  girth  they  may 
be  tabulated  as  shown  in  Fig.  157.  The  widths  are  here 
given  to  the  nearest  J^2  inch. 

Figure  158  shows  a  graphic  method  of  determining  the 
required  planking  widths  at  the  various  girths  without 
any  calculation  whatever,  which  is  laid  out  as  follows : 

On  the  straight  line  A  measure  from  the  point  0 
one-tenth  (one-twentieth  would  do  as  well)  of  each  girth 
and  from  each  point  so  measured  draw  a  line  down  and 
square  from  the  line  A.  On  the  last  line  so  drawn  measure 
down  from  line  A  the  widths  of  planking  at  the  greatest 
girth,  and  join  each  of  the  points  thus  measured  to  O  with 
a  straight  line.  This  completes  the  figure,  and  the  required 
widths  of  the  7>^-inch  strakes  at  all  girths  may  be  directly 
measured  from  line  A  to  the  line  drawn  from  O  to  the  7>^ 
mark,  these  measurements  being  taken  on  the  lines  pre- 


172    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

viously  squared  down  from  the  line  A  at  the  points  repre- 
senting the  lengths  of  the  various  girths,  as  shown  by  the 
arrow  heads  in  the  figure.  Likewise  the  required  widths 
of  the  S^i-  and  9>^-inch  strakes  may  be  taken  directly  from 
the  figure. 

Tapered  planking  is  not  generally  spiled,  as  it  is  usually 
of  such  narrow  widths  as  to  easily  take  the  required  edge 
set. 

It  is  customary  to  plank  first  from  the  keel  to  a  point 
above  the  turn  of  the  bilge,  and  then  plank  from  the  deck 
line  down  to  this  point,  the  last  strake  placed  being  known 
as  the  shutter.  Thus,  if  any  unfairness  in  planking  lines 
develops  as  the  tapered  planking  is  run  on,  the  correcting 
strakes  will  be  located  at  or  below  the  water  line,  near  the 
shutter,  and  will  not  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  job. 
Sometimes  two  planking  gangs  are  worked  at  the  same 
time,  one  working  from  the  bottom  up,  and  the  other 
working  from  the  top  down,  in  which  case,  if  the  tapered 
planking  is  started  before  the  untapered  is  finished,  it  is 
run  in  on  estimated  tapers  at  the  top,  the  correction  strakes 
being  located  in  the  vicinity  of  the  shutter. 

It  is  seldom  that  any  two  liners  will  approach  the  lining 
problem  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  and  for  this  reason 
no  two  will  arrive  at  exactly  the  same  result  in  the  finished 
job,  either  in  the  respective  number  of  tapered  and  un- 
tapered strakes  used,  or  the  amount  of  taper  on  the  tapered 
planking. 

SPILING 

Spiling  battens  may  be  used  to  determine  the  shape  of 
either  one  or  both  edges  of  a  plank  and  the  principles  of 
taking  the  spiling  are  the  same  in  each  case. 

Fore  and  after  hoods  of  the  first  garboard  strakes  are 
generally  ordered  wider  than  the  balance  of  the  strakes  so 
that  they  may  be  spiled  to  fit.  If  this  was  not  done  it 
would  not  only  require  very  heavy  edge  set  to  bring  the 
hood  ends  down  to  the  rabbets,  but  would  throw  a  hump 
in  the  planking  edge  abaft  the  stem  and  forward  of  the 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     173 

stern  post  that  would  increase  the  difficulty  of  setting  the 
next  strake. 

One  method  of  taking  a  garboard  forehood  spiUng  is 
detailed  in  Figs.  159  and  160.  The  liner  first  runs  in  the 
line  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  garboard,  being  careful  to 
keep  within  the  limits  required  by  the  available  width  of 
stock  ordered  for  this  piece.  A  thin  wide  spiling  batten  is 
then  roughed  out  to  clear  both  the  rabbets  and  the  line, 
and  tacked  in  its  natural  position,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

Then  set  a  compass,  or  divider,  at  such  radius  as  to 
permit  the  scribing  of  a  good  portion  of  a  circle  on  the 
batten  when  the  center  point  is  held  on  either  the  line  of  the 
upper  edge  of  the  garboard  or  the  inner  rabbet  line.  With 
the  compass  or  divider  so  set,  scribe  arcs  on  the  batten  as 
shown  in  the  figure,  at  frequent  intervals.  Where  the 
curvature  is  sharp  they  should  be  scribed  very  close  together. 

The  batten  is  next  taken  off  the  ship  and  laid  on  the 
timber  from  which  the  forehood  is  to  be  cut.  If  the  fore- 
hood  is  to  be  fitted  without  edge  set  the  batten  will  be 
permitted  to  lay  in  its  natural  position  in  marking  out 
the  piece.  If,  however,  the  top  edge  of  the  garboard  is  to 
be  left  straight,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  forward  end  of 
the  batten  will  have  to  be  sprung  up  to  fit  it.  The  amount 
of  spring  necessary  to  make  the  batten  fit  the  straight  upper 
edge  of  the  hood  will  be  the  same  as  the  amount  of  edge 
set  required  to  fit  the  forehood  in  place  on  the  ship  if  the 
upper  edge  is  left  straight.  If  this  is  excessive  in  the 
opinion  of  the  liner  some  of  the  spring  is  taken  out  of  the 
batten,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  garboard  will  then  be 
cut  with  some  curvature. 

To  scribe  the  points  off  the  batten  onto  the  hood  timber, 
the  compasses  or  dividers  are  used  with  the  same  radius 
as  when  the  batten  was  scribed  from  the  ship,  the  center 
point  being  set  first  at  one  point  on  the  arc,  then  at  another 
point  about  90  degrees  from  the  first,  and  short  arcs  drawn 
so  that  they  will  cross  as  shown  in  the  figure.  When  the 
batten  is  sprung  up  to  fit  the  straight  upper  edge  of  the 
garboard,  the  arcs  at  the  top  must  cross  directly  on  the  edge 


174    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     175 

of  the  timber.  The  balance  of  the  points  are  then  marked 
off  with  the  batten  held  in  this  position.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  with  the  same  spiling  batten,  it  is  possible  to  lay- 
out the  garboard  forehood  with  either  no  edge  set,  or 
the  full  edge  set  required  by  leaving  the  upper  edge  of  the 
garboard  straight,  or  any  intermediate  desired  edge  set, 
according  to  the  conditions,  width  of  available  stock, 
and  the  liners  judgment. 

The  after  end  of  the  batten  should  in  any  of  the  above 
conditions,  be  placed  on  the  timber  so  that  its  upper 
scribe  marks  fit,  or  are  parallel  to,  the  upper  edge  of  the 
timber.  This  end  is  then  held  in  this  position  whether  or 
not  the  forward  end  is  sprung  from  its  natural  position. 
The  width  of  the  garboard  at  the  point  A  is  also  generally 
made  the  same  as  the  balance  of  the  strake. 

It  should  be  noted  in  Fig.  160  that  the  cutting  line  indi- 
cates the  shape  of  the  faying  side  of  the  hood  to  fit  the 
inner  rabbet,  and  that,  as  the  batten  is  scribed,  the  cutting 
Une  will  appear  on  the  outer  face  of  the  hood.  The  rabbet 
bevels  therefore  have  to  be  taken  and  proper  allowance 
made  for  them  in  establishing  the  corrected  cutting  line. 
The  corrected  line  will  generally  be  slightly  outside  of  the 
first  scribed  line,  the  bevels  reading  under  so  that  after  the 
hood  is  cut,  the  lower  inner  corner  will  correspond  to  the 
first  scribed  line  and  will  fit  the  inner  rabbet.  The  bevels 
are  taken  in  much  the  same  manner  as  ceiling  bevels,  except 
that  a  calking  seam  is  provided.  This  simply  means  that 
the  bevel  run  on  the  edge  of  the  hood  is  slightly  less  than 
that  taken  from  the  rabbet. 

The  rabbet  on  the  keel,  as  it  approaches  the  stem  and 
stern  post  is  gradually  reduced,  or  tapered,  in  its  depth, 
so  that  at  the  stem  and  stern  post  it  will  be  only  as  deep  as 
required  by  the  top  side  planking.  Hence  fore  and  after 
hoods  of  the  garboards  must  in  all  cases  be  tapered  off  in 
thickness  to  fit  the  rabbet.  Since  the  after  end  of  the  fore 
hood  and  the  fore  end  of  the  after  hood  must  be  the  same 
thickness  as  the  balance  of  the  strake  amidships,  there  is 
often  a  great  deal  of  material  to  be  taken  off  in  thinning  the 


176    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

hood  ends.  Very  often  the  taper  in  thickness  is  cut  with 
as  much  twist  as  the  original  thickness  of  the  timber  will 
permit,  this  twist  being  in  the  direction  that  the  hood  will 
have  to  be  twisted  in  forcing  it  to  its  place.  This  reduces 
the  amount  of  twist  that  the  timber  must  stand  and  de- 
creases by  that  much  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  hoods  in 
place. 

All  planking  which  has  to  be  bent,  twisted,  or  edge  set 
must  be  thoroughly  steamed. 

The  bevels  for  the  edges  of  the  planking  may  in  general 
be  lifted  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  p  eviously  de- 
scribed for  ceiling  bevels,  except  that  it  will  not  be  found 
necessary  to  reverse  them  to  obtain  a  surface  for  scribing 
the  cutting  line.  This  may  be  explained  another  way  by 
stating  that  wherever  the  extreme  breadth  of  either  ceiUng 
or  planking  is  utilized,  the  bevels  as  taken  from  the  ship 
must  be  converted  into  standing  bevels,  or  the  cutting  line 
would  appear  on  the  extreme  edge  of  the  timber  and  could 
not  be  defined.  Since  planking  bevels  as  taken  from  the 
ship  are  already  standing,  or  where  under,  are  at  a  point 
not  using  the  full  width  of  the  plank,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  reverse  them. 

The  allowance  for  the  calking  seam  is  generally  made 
when  the  bevels  are  lifted  from  the  ship.  It  is  customary 
in  most  yards  to  allow  an  opening  not  to  exceed  }<8  inch  at 
the  outside  face  of  the  planking. 

PLANK  FASTENINGS 

Number  and  arrangement  of  fastenings  for  planks 
from  5  to  16  inches  in  width  are  shown  in  Fig.  161.  It 
should  be  noted  that  two  spikes  count  as  one  fastening. 

As  a  rule,  the  number  of  fastenings  to  be  driven  is  regu- 
lated by  the  width  of  the  plank,  while  the  diameter  is 
regulated  by  the  thickness  of  the  plank,  and  the  material 
of  the  fastening.  It  is  also  customary  in  some  localities 
to  keep  the  diameter  of  the  largest  fastening  down  to  about 
one-eighth  the  siding  ot  the  frame  timbers,  which  in  some 
cases  might  require  an  increase  of  the  number  to  be  driven. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     177 


PLANK  FASTENINGS 


X      O 
O       X      11     X      ® 


X 


o 

y        9 


e     X    I   N     o 

O        X      I      X        ® 


HhJihi 


e      X 
o 


X      O 


o     5 


< 


e      X 
o 


FIQURE-16/ 


O  '  HARWOOD    TREENAILS 

e  -  THRU   CLINCHED     BOLTS  AT  BOTTS 

X  -  BOAT   SPIKES 


ARROWS  SHOW  ALTERN/tTE. 
LOCATIOti   OF  FASTENING 


12 


178    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

Hardwood  treenails,  are  generally  made  from  selected 
black  locust,  and  may  vary  in  diameter  as  driven  from  13-^ 
inches  to  1  3^^  inches,  depending  upon  the  thickness  of  the 
planking.  All  treenails,  where  possible  are  driven  through 
the  ceiling  inside,  then  cut  off  flush  on  both  ends  and  wedged 
with  small  oak  wedges  made  for  that  purpose  and  called 
treenail  wedges.  The  wedges  must  be  set  across  the 
grain  of  the  plank  through  which  the  treenail  is  driven. 
Where  treenails  are  not  driven  through,  a  wedge  is  inserted 
in  the  end  of  the  treenail  which,  when  the  treenail  is  driven, 
backs  up  against  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and  wedges  the 
treenail  fast. 

There  are  three  general  types  of  treenails  in  use.  The 
first  is  straight,  and  is  driven  in  a  hole  about  J^e  iiich  smaller 
than  the  treenail.  When  it  is  necessary  to  drive  treenails 
of  this  type  longer  than  about  24  inches,  it  becomes  rather 
difficult  to  get  them  in  with  the  proper  amount  of  drift. 
Hence  a  second  type  has  been  devised  where  about  one-half 
of  the  length  of  the  treenail  is  sized  about  3^^  inch  smaller 
than  the  other  half.  These  are  driven  in  holes  bored 
first  about  half-way  through  the  hull  with  an  auger  }^{q 
smaller  than  the  large  end  of  the  treenail,  and  the  rest  of 
the  way  with  an  auger  }{q  smaller  than  the  small  part  of 
the  treenail.  This  in  effect  shortens  the  required  length 
of  drift  and  makes  it  possible  to  drive  much  longer  tree- 
nails than  would  be  the  case  with  the  first  type.  Such  tree- 
nails are  known  as  two-drift  treenails.  The  third  type 
is  tapered  and  is  driven  in  a  two  size  hole  bored  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  for  the  two-drift  treenails.  The 
large  end  of  the  treenail  is  about  }i  inch  larger  than  the 
larger  portion  of  the  hole,  while  the  small  end  is  the  same 
size  as  the  smaller  portion  of  the  hole.  It  is  claimed  that 
these  treenails  when  driven  properly  cannot  be  backed  out 
and  that  they  actually  hold  the  planking  up  against  the 
frame. 

All  holes  are  bored,  and  all  treenails  are  driven,  from  the 
outside.    ' 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     179 

In  some  instances  button-headed  bolts  have  been  sub- 
stituted for  treenails,  the  same  number  being  driven,  and 
about  one-half  of  them  driven  through  the  ceiling  inside  and 
chnched  over  rings. 

The  spike  fastening  is  commonly  known  as  the  working 
fastening,  as  it  is  used  to  hold  the  plank  in  place  until  the 
planking  gang  can  get  clear  for  the  fastening  gang.  It  will 
be  noted  that  two  spikes  are  driven  to  each  frame  in  Fig. 
161  for  all  widths  of  planking.  This  is  a  maximum  number 
and  very  often  fastening  arrangements  call  for  not  more 
than  one  spike  to  the  frame. 

The  size  of  the  spike  is  regulated  by  the  thickness  of  the 
plank,  the  old  rule  being — }<8  inch  square  and  2  inches 
long  for  each  inch  thickness  of  plank.  Thus  a  spike  for 
5-inch  planking  would  be  ^i  inch  square  and  10  inches 
long.  Another  rule  adds  one  inch  to  the  length  thus  ob- 
tained. Where  the  vessel  has  diagonal  planking,  the  thick- 
ness of  this  must  also  be  added  to  the  length  as  obtained  by 
the  above  rule. 

Each  plank  butt  must  be  extra  fastened  with  two  button- 
headed  bolts,  driven  through  and  clinched  over  rings 
inside  the  ceiling.  These  may  be  arranged  as  shown  in  the 
figure. 

Alternate  arrangements  of  some  of  the  fastenings  are 
shown  by  arrows.  The  arrangement  shown  here  is  but  one 
of  several  in  use,  and  where  plans  show  detail  fastening 
arrangements,  they  should  of  course  be  carefully  followed. 

The  shift  of  butts  shown  in  Fig.  161,  is  the  minimum 
customarily  permitted,  and  where  possible  greater  shifts 
should  be  used.  The  rule  for  minimum  shifts  may  be 
stated  as  follows: 

Butts  in  adjoining  strakes  shall  have  three  frame  spaces 
between.  Butts  in  the  next  strake  but  one,  shall  have  two 
frame  spaces  between.  Butts  in  the  next  strake  but  two 
shall  have  one  frame  space  between  (as  shown  in  the  figure). 
Butts  in  the  next  strake  but  three  may  land  on  the  same 
frame,  or  butts  landing  on  the  same  frame  shall  have  three 


180    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

strakes  between.     Butts  shall   not   be  arranged  in  even 
sequence  or  steps. 

The  above  shift  of  butts  will,  with  a  frame  spacing  of 
three  feet,  require  an  average  length  of  planking  of  only 
about  36  feet,  hence  it  will  be  seen  that  it  can  easily  be 
maintained  in  any  locality,  and  very  much  bettered  where 
long  timber  is  available. 

HULL  ERECTIONS 

Hull  erections  include  any  erection  on  the  hull  proper 
which  extends  above  the  main  rail.  They  are  sometimes 
called  deck  erections,  but  since  this  latter  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  joiner  houses,  it  is  deemed  best  to  here 
differentiate  between  the  two.  In  general  hull  erections 
will  include  the  poop,  bridge,  and  forecastle,  the  bridge 
being  located  amidships.  Sometimes  the  bridge  is  set 
further  aft  and  combined  with  the  poop,  making  what  is 
known  as  a  long  connecting  poop  and  bridge.  Figure  194 
shows  the  location  of  these  structures  on  a  vessel  of  the 
Three  Island  Type. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  building  up  that 
portion  of  the  poop  rounding  the  stern.  The  first  is  by  the 
use  of  swinging  cants  set  around  the  stern,  these  extending 
to  the  poop  deck,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  chapter  on 
framing.  The  usual  planking  on  the  sides  of  the  poop  is 
then  run  around  the  stern  and  there  is  no  solid  work. 

In  the  second  method,  the  after  portion  of  the  poop  is 
built  up  entirely  of  soUd  work,  as  shown  in  Figs.  162  and 
163.  Figure  162  shows  a  construction  quite  commonly  used 
on  small  vessels  built  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  is  shown 
here  for  comparison  with  the  construction  detailed  in  Fig. 
163  which  is  used  on  larger  vessels.  In  Fig.  162  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  solid  work  around  the  stern  carries  the  same 
detail  as  the  bulwark  which  is  shown  in  Section  A-A. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bulwark  planking  is  quite  narrow, 
one  course  of  solid  work  is  made  to  represent  two  bulwark 
planks  by  cutting  a  V  groove  in  the  middle  of  the  course. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    181 


(U 

in 

w 

o 

ar 

1 

D 

H 

UJ 

< 

Ui 

a: 

Ql 

> 

o 

h 

II 

o 

^ 

o 

-1 

o 

^ni 

182    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

The  courses  should  where  possible  match  up  with  the  seams 
in  the  bulwark  and  poop  planking  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
Where  the  seams  of  the  solid  work  are  not  made  to  fair 
into  seams  of  the  bulwark  and  poop  planking,  it  is  necessary 
to  wedge  them  flush  and  cut  V  grooves  to  fair  with  the 
corresponding  V  grooves  in  the  planking  seams. 

This  type  of  solid  work  is  molded  the  same  as  the  thick- 
ness of  the  planking,  plus  the  molding  of  the  frame,  hence 
the  inside  face  of  this  work,  where  it  butts  against  the  first 
frame  extending  to  the  poop  deck,  will  be  exactly  flush 
with  the  inside  of  the  frame.  It  is  customary  to  carry  this 
same  molding  around  the  stern.  The  type  of  stern  on 
which  this  solid  work  is  used,  has  been  shown  in  Fig.  64, 
and  by  referring  to  this  figure  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rim 
lands  on  top  of  the  after  timber  of  the  frame  against  which 
the  sohd  work  ends,  and  that  the  solid  work  will  therefore 
extend  to  the  center-line  of  the  frame  and  abut  the  forward 
timber. 

The  bulwark  planking  and  side  planking  of  the  poop 
must  be  scarfed  back  onto  the  solid  work.  In  order  to 
break  the  scarfs  and  avoid  what  would  appear  to  be  a 
vertical  seam  at  this  point,  about  one-half  of  the  planks  are 
scarfed  back  further  than  the  balance  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  sohd  work  showing  on  the  outside  is  grained 
in  the  figure  to  make  it  stand  out  from  the  planking. 
A  section  through* the  scarfs  is  shown  at  B-B.  Comparison 
of  this  section  with  that  of  the  bulwark  will  show  that  the 
outside  detail  has  been  retained  exactly.  The  rail  clamp, 
and  that  portion  of  the  maili  rail  extending  inside  the  inner 
face  of  the  stanchion  has  been  stopped  at  the  poop  bulkhead. 

There  are  several  variations  of  the  construction  shown 
in  this  figure  which  can  and  have  been  used.  In  the  most 
notable  one,  where  the  poop  is  short,  the  main  rail  is 
extended  through  as  a  solid  course,  all  frames  being  stopped 
against  it  as  in  a  bulwark,  and  all  work  above  the  main  rail 
to  the  break  is  solid  work,  of  the  same  type  as  here  shown 
further  aft.  The  solid  work  however  carries  the  same 
detail  as  shown  in  the  figure. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     183 

The  type  of  solid  work  shown  in  Fig.  163  is  the  same 
as  that  indicated  on  the  stern  frame  shown  in  Fig.  66 
Chapter  II,  where  it  will  be  noted  that  the  rim  sets  some 
distance  above  the  deck  line.  The  bulwark  detail  as 
shown  in  Section  A-A  is  not  carried  around  the  stern  but  is 
returned  at  a  point  about  in  line  with  the  break  of  the  poop. 
To  accomplish  this  return  the  butt  joints  between  the  thin 
bulwark  planking  and  the  heavier  strakes  on  each  side  and 
those  extending  to  the  stern,  are  arranged  on  the  curve 
indicated  in  the  figure.  Then  the  beading  is  cut  on  the 
ends  of  the  heavier  strakes,  around  this  curve,  care  being 
taken  to  have  it  exactly  match  and  fair  into  the  beading  on 
the  upper  and  lower  bead  strakes. 

The  solid  work  in  this  figure  has  a  sharp  rake  aft  at  the 
extreme  after  end.  This  rake  gradually  diminishes  toward 
the  sides  of  the  poop  until  at  the  section  B-B  it  will  dis- 
appear and  the  work  will  be  practically  plumb.  Forward 
of  the  point  where  the  section  B-B  is  taken  it  may  have  a 
slight  tumble  home. 

The  sides  of  the  poop  are  planked,  this  being  scarfed 
back  onto  the  soHd  work  as  shown.  Since  the  outside 
surfaces  are  finished  flush,  without  V  grooves  for  trim, 
no  attempt  is  made  to  have  the  seams  of  the  planking  and 
solid  work  match  up.  Where  this  can  be  done  however  it 
would  probably  result  in  improved  appearance  as  the  vessel 
gets  older  and  the  seams  tend  to  open  up  and  show. 

The  outside  face  of  this  rim  is  faired  to  the  outer  face  of 
the  planking.  The  forward  ends  abut  the  frame  and 
the  outer  portion,  corresponding  to  the  plank,  or  knuckle 
strake  is  carried  to  the  center  of  the  frame,  to  make  a 
proper  butt  against  the  knuckle  strake.  The  knuckle 
strake  (shown  shaded),  is  fitted  to  fair  out  the  knuckle 
line  forward  of  the  rim,  to  a  fair  planking  surface,  as  the 
rim  is  so  short  that  it  is  generally  impossible  to  fair  out  the 
knuckle  line,  or  make  it  disappear,  on  the  rim  proper. 
The  forward  end  of  the  knuckle  strake  will  be  the  same  as  a 
plank,  while  the  after  end  will  match  the  rim. 

Since  the  main  rail  is  not  carried  around  the  stern  it  is 


184    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


o 

12 

CD 

k.     z 

V) 

^  o 

u. 
0 

\    f. 

> 

5 

^ 

^ 

z 

t- 

"^  \ 

Vi 

z 

«>: 

u 

o 

£ 

«^ 

I         ro 

0 

u 

E         ^ 

>- 

<t 

«)         1 

o 

,1 

f             LJ 

tc 

3 

O 

PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     185 

necessary  to  either  stop  it  off  short,  forward  of  the  break 
of  the  poop,  or  carry  it  up  to  the  poop  deck  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  latter  arrangement  gives  the  best  appearance. 
The  curved  portion  of  the  rail  is  sawn  to  actual  shape,  and 
should  be  in  short  sections  to  avoid  undue  cross  grain. 

Molds  for  the  timber  comprising  the  solid  work  may  be 
lifted  course  by  course  from  the  ship,  or  from  the  loft 
floor.  If  lifted  from  the  loft  floor,  the  sawing  must  be 
very  carefully  done  to  avoid  hollow  places  which  cannot 
be  dressed,  or  joinered  out.  As  put  in  place  they  are  gener- 
ally rough  sawn,  the  dressing,  or  joinering  being  done 
afterwards. 

It  should  be  noted  in  connection  with  all  of  these  erec- 
tions, that  the  planking,  bead  strakes,  etc.,  above  the  main 
deck,  or  upper  deck  line,  are  run  without  taper,  the  one 
exception  being,  in  Fig.  163  at  the  stern  where  the  planks 
below  the  bead  strake,  and  which  are  still  above  the  deck 
line  have  to  be  treated  as  hull  planks,  and  are  therefore 
tapered. 

Solid  work  is  generally  butted  square  and  the  butts  may 
be  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  165.  Where  the  main  rail 
is  carried  solid  without  break  around  the  stern,  as  was 
explained  in  the  discussion  of  Fig.  162  it  is  customary 
to  scarf  all  of  the  rail  butts  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  164, 
except  at  the  forward  ends,  where  of  course  the  rail  would 
continue  forward  unbroken.  Where  solid  work  butts 
are  scarfed  the  arrangement  would  generally  be  as  shown 
in  the  figure. 

The  common  fastening  arrangement  for  solid  work  is 
shown  in  Fig.  165.  All  bolts  are  drifts,  driven  blunt. 
The  arrangement  shown  is  subject  to  modification  as  may  be 
required  by  the  particular  arrangement  of  the  work. 

Figure  166  shows  a  quite  common  arrangement  of  plank- 
ing on  the  sides  of  the  forecastle.  The  bulwark  planking  is 
returned  just  aft  of  the  hawse  pipe  hole.  Above  the  main 
rail  course  there  is  a  panel  of  thin  planking  having  the  sam 
thickness  as  the  bulwark  planking,  which  is  returned  a 
little  further  forward  than  the  bulwark  planking.     These 


186    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  SCARFS 

IVHCRE  U.SEDIN  SOLIO  WORK 
CPyCRINQ  BOARDS, CHOCK  R>^ILS  OR 
OTHER  H£AVy    STR/IKES  ^ROUfiD  gTERW 

EXAMPLE  ASm  SOI.ID   WORK 


FIGURE-i64> 


»RRANgEMENT  OP  BUTTS 
AND  FASTENING 
iW  SOLID  WORK  AROUND  STERW 


5r 

^   1    !    !    1    !    ii!    :    1    1 

.    !  i!   ^ 

^J 

;   :  !l    i^!i    i  !:    i  j:    i  iii 

1  il     1  i^ 

J: 

,1    .   ,.|    ,    i,|^,    i..    .    ,.;    .    ;,| 

li!'l  '  \t^ 

-#', 

1    n  !  •  !  i  '!     '^i  1  '1 

1      1 

,   > 

+'  :     '  1  !  '  i  1  'i  i     '  i  1  ■ 

!  i 

1  f 

■^  1 

i  ■  I     ■* !  1  '  i     '  :  !  '  4!  ! 

1  1 

• 

:  !/• 

Sj 

!  :  i  !  I  ■  Ul  ':  i  '  1  i  ■! 

\: 

:t 

^j 

'    ^1  !  ;  !  •  i     •  1  !+'  1     ■ 

1 

1  ^^ 

^  ! 

i    i  1  t 

NOTE?  ^LL    BOLTS    ARE  DRIFTS  P>»SSINQ     QEN ERALCY 

THRU    TWO    AHD    ONE  HALF  STRAKES  OR  COURSES 


FIGURE-165 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     187 

returns  at  this  point  are  necessary  because  all  planking 
entering  the  rabbet  in  this  vicinity  must  be  the  same 
thickness.  If  the  thin  planking  were  continued  to  the 
rabbet,  it  would  be  necessary  to  cut  the  rabbet  further 
aft  on  the  stem  than  the  rabbet  for  the  thick  planking 
shows,  or  if  carried  to  the  same  rabbet  a  portion  of  the 
rabbet  would  show  outside  of  the  planking.  Either 
arrangement  would  leave  an  unsightly  job.  There  is  a 
method,  where  the  thin  planking  extends  over  the  whole 
side  of  the  forecastle,  of  running  it  to  the  same  rabbet. 
This  is  done  by  either  leaving  the  frames  next  to  the  stem 
full  on  the  outer  face,  or  shimming  them  out,  so  as  to  throw 
the  outside  face  of  the  thin  planking  at  the  rabbet  flush 
with  the' outside  face  of  the  thick  planking.  The  rabbet 
for  the  thinner  planking  is  then  cut  from  the  same  outside 
rabbet  line,  but  only  to  the  depth  required  by  the  thinner 
planking,  thus  leaving  an  unbroken  exterior.  This  method 
is  often  used  to  avoid  the  return  above  the  main  rail  course, 
in  which  case  the  strakes  corresponding  to  the  bead  strakes 
above  the  main  rail  course  would  be  left  without  the  beading, 
and  would  be  tapered  at  the  rabbet  to  the  thickness  of  the 
thin  planking. 

Monkey  rails,  where  fitted,  are  usually  built  up  of  solid 
work  as  shown  in  the  figure  and  fastened  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  for  solid  work  at  the  stern. 

The  frames  in  way  of  the  bridge  erection  are  extended 
to  the  bridge  deck  in  the  same  manner  as  shown  at  the 
forecastle.  The  outside  planking  detail  may  vary  some- 
what but  in  general,  very  much  the  same  detail  of  thin 
strakes,  bead  strakes,  etc.,  will  be  used  as  have  been  shown 
for  the  end  erections.  If  a  panel  is  used  above  the  main 
rail  in  way  of  the  bridge,  it  will  be  returned  at  each  end 
in  the  same  manner  as  shown  at  the  break  of  the  fore- 
castle in  Fig.  166.  The  bulwark  planking  is  generally 
carried  through  without  break. 

The  hull  erections  are  generally  ceiled  inside  with  thin 
ceiling  from  the  waterways  to  the  clamps.  Very  often 
tongue  and  groove  stuff  is  used.     Clamps  should  be  fitted 


188    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

for  landing  the  beams,  and  they  are  fastened  very  much 
as  hull  clamps. 

It  is  customary  in  many  yards,  to  saw  the  poop  and 
forecastle  beams  with  the  full  camber  on  the  top  face, 
leaving  the  bottom  face  straight.  However  where  the 
arrangement  of  interior  bulkheads  permits  they  may  be, 
and  often  are,  sprung  in  the  same  manner  as  hull  beans 
are  sprung.  Beams  for  bridge  erections  generally  have  the 
same  partial  camber  sawn  on  both  upper  and  under 
sides,  the  balance  being  sprung.  Hull  erection  beams  are 
generally  fitted  with  hanging  knees,  it  being  the  best 
practice  to  fit  one  to  each  beam  end  in  way  of  the  bridge, 
and  three  or  four  on  each  side  of  the  poop  or  forecastle 
as  may  be  required. 

The  common  arrangement  of  coverboard,  or  covering 
board,  scarfs  around  the  after  end  of  the  poop  is  the  same 
as  that  shown  in  Fig.  164.  On  the  forecastle  it  will  also 
be  necessary  to  scarf  in  the  coverboard  in  relatively  short 
lengths,  and  the  scarfs  may  be  arranged  in  the  same  form 
as  has  been  previously  shown  in  connection  with  the  water- 
ways at  this  point. 

Against  the  apron,  or  stem,  if  there  is  no  apron  at  this 
point,  there  should  be  a  deck  hook,  in  way  of  the  fore- 
castle beams.  The  coverboard  should  also  be  fitted  with  a 
natural  crook  hook  cut  to  the  same  shape  as  waterway 
hooks,  and  well  fastened.  There  should  be  a  stout  breast 
hook  set  just  under,  or  even  with  the  top  of  the  small  rail 
on  top  of  the  monkey  rail,  this  being  well  fastened  through 
the  monkey  rail  and  to  the  stem. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     189 


190    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

MAIN  RAIL 

The  main  rail  has  already  been  mentioned  but  only  in  a 
general  way.  In  ordinary  types  of  ship  construction  this 
member  forms  one  of  the  principal  upper  strength  members, 
and  is  therefore  carefully  fitted  and  fastened.  It  should  be 
in  very  long  lengths,  with  scarfs  of  standard  or  longer 
length,  set  on  edge,  with  standard  nibs,  and  thoroughly 
edge  bolted  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  167.  These 
scarfs  are  quite  frequently  made  with  a  hook. 

The  fastening  is  generally  by  button-headed  bolts 
driven  into  the  stanchion  head,  rail  clamp,  and  bead 
strake,  and  arranged  as  shown  in  the  figure.  To  render 
this  fastening  effective  the  clamp  is  generally  through  clinch 
fastened  to  the  bead  strake,  the  common  arrangement 
being  two  spikes  for  working  fastening,  and  two  clinched 
bolts  to  each  stanchion,  the  bolts  being  button  headed  and 
driven  from  the  outside.  The  main  rail  fastening  is  set 
down  in  counterbores,  which  are  plugged. 

Very  often  the  main  rail  is  mortised  about  one  inch  over 
the  heads  of  the  stanchions,  but  this  must  be  very  carefully 
done  to  be  of  any  real  value  to  the  work. 

The  special  type  of  bulwark  in  Fig.  168  is  shown  here  for 
the  interest  it  may  have  for  the  reader  in  making  comparisons 
between  the  different  types  of  construction  prevailing. 
It  is  a  modification  of  the  type  of  steel  reinforcement 
that  has  been  previously  shown  for  shelter  deck  vessels. 
One  of  the  principal  points  of  interest  is  the  fact  that  the 
main  rail  in  reality  consists  of  a  steel  plate  set  over  the 
stanchion  heads,  and  that  the  main  rail,  so  called  in  the 
figure,  acts  principally  as  a  fender  for  this  plate. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     191 


MAIN  RAIL  SCARFS  AND  FASTENING 


— T T 


PLAN 


T 
.-4- 


i    I 


k0         w^ 


FIGURE -167 


PATENTED  STEEL 
REINFORCED  BULV^ARK 


STRINGER  PC  AT 


STEEL  KNCE  ; 


CLAMPS 


FiGURE-iee 


MAIN  RAIL 

SCREW  BOLTS 


COfiTINUOUS  WOOD 
RlBBAtiO  TO  RECEiyC 
ENOS  OF  DIAQONAL 
PLANKINC 


PLANKING 


OOUBLE  DIAGONAL 


PLANKINQ 


192    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 
SCUPPERS  AND  FREEING  PORTS 

Scuppers  must  be  provided  in  all  hull  weather  decks. 
Freeing  ports  are  required  in  all  bulwarks  in  way  of  wells, 
on  account  of  the  larger  quantity  of  water  from  which  it 
may  be  necessary  to  free  the  deck. 

A  section  showing  a  deck  scupper  as  quite  commonly 
cut,  is  shown  in  Fig.  169.  The  hole  is  oval  in  shape  and  is 
lined  with  heavy  lead  flanged  over  on  the  wood  at  each  end 
and  fastened  with  copper  nails.  Strainers  are  often  fitted 
on  the  inner  end,  but  are  not  so  necessary  where  the 
opening  stands  on  edge  as  in  the  figure.  Extra  chocks 
should  be  fitted  where  such  scuppers  are  cut  so  that  the 
lead  will  be  supported  for  its  full  length. 

On  small  western  steamers  the  freeing  ports  are  often 
arranged  as  shown  at  Type  A  in  the  same  figure.  It  will 
be  seen  that  they  consist  of  openings  formed  by  cutting 
out  sections  of  the  first  bulwark  strake  above  the  head 
strake.  In  vessels,  where  the  lower  edge  of  the  head 
strake  is  set  even  with  the  top  of  the  waterways,  the 
openings  are  cut  in  the  lower  half  of  the  head  strake. 
They  are  not  fitted  with  hinged  covers,  and  will  of  course 
admit  water  as  well  as  let  it  out  from  the  spaces  enclosed 
by  the  bulwark. 

The  type  of  freeing  port  most  generally  favored  consists 
of  a  large  opening  cut  in  the  bulwark  as  shown  at  Type  B. 
This  opening  is  fitted  with  a  metal  cover  hinged  at  the 
top,  so  that  it  will  swing  outward  only.  This  arrangement 
will  permit  large  quantities  of  water  to  flow  from  the 
decks  enclosed  by  the  bulwarks,  but  will  permit  very  little 
to  flow  into  these  spaces,  should  the  port  be  submerged. 
The  total  area  of  freeing  ports  required  on  any  ship  is 
fixed  by  the  rules  of  the  Classification  Society  under  which 
the  vessel  is  to  be  classed. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     193 


194    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 
MAST  COLLARS,  WEDGES  AND  STEPS 

Where  masts  pass  through  decks  they  are  fitted  with 
hardwood  collars  and  wedges  arranged  generally  as  shown  in 
Fig.  170.  The  collar  is  made  up  of  from  four  to  six  pieces, 
or  segments,  and  is  scribed  down  through  the  decking  to 
the  beams  and  partners.  The  collar  is  fitted  before  the 
mast  is  stepped,  then  the  hole  is  carefully  lined  and  trimmed 
to  the  proper  size  and  taper  for  the  wedges.  The  method 
of  lining  has  been  previously  explained.  The  taper  on 
the  wedges  may  vary  somewhat  but  should  not  be  less  than 
J^  inch  to  the  foot.  The  wedges  are  made  longer  than 
finally  required,  and  after  the  mast  has  been  stepped  and 
secured  in  its  proper  position,  they  are  carefully  driven 
down  hard  as  far  as  they  will  go,  then  trimmed  off  even  at 
the  top.  After  this  work  has  been  completed,  a  petticoat, 
or  boot,  as  it  is  also  called,  of  heavy  canvas  is  fitted  around 
the  mast  and  to  the  deck  to  make  the  job  watertight. 

Mast  steps  should  always  be  of  hardwood,  and  well 
fastened  in  place.  The  mortise  of  mast  to  step  is  frequently 
made  of  the  common  bUnd  type  as  has  been  shown  on  stern 
posts.  The  form  of  mortise  shown  in  Fig.  171  while  rather 
complicated,  is  designed  to  secure  the  greatest  possible 
strength  in  the  thwartship  direction. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     195 


MISCELLANEOUS    DETAILS. 


HARD  WOOD  tveOGSS 

H/iRD)VOOD  COLLAl^ 
DECKING 


rlGURE.''lTO    mast  wedges  ano  collars 


\       \ 


X — y 


y 


I       mOH  BAHD 


MAST  STEP 
HARD  WOOD 


FlGUfJEr  171     showing  one  form  of  mortise 

USED  IN  STEPPING  MASTS 


196    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

JOINER  WORK 

Joiner  work  in  general  includes  all  houses  above  the 
bridge,  or  shelter  decks,  also  all  subdividing  bulkheads, 
or  partitions  in  the  poop  and  forecastle  compartments, 
as  well  as  any  erection,  or  housing  that  may  be  required 
above  either  the  poop  or  forecastle  decks.  While  the 
work  may  vary  greatly  in  detail  design  in  different  localities, 
and  yards,  the  principles  of  construction  used  are  very 
much  the  same. 

The  details  shown  in  this  chapter,  in  Figs.  172  to  193 
inclusive  are  for  the  main  part  taken  from  one  type  of  design, 
and  the  reader  may  therefore  note  that  while  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  named  items  existing  in  any  particular  ship 
house  will  very  closely  follow  that  shown  in  the  figures, 
the  shape  or  design  of  such  parts,  or  items,  may,  without 
causing  the  work  to  be  less  attractive,  or  substantial, 
be  quite  different.  For  this  reason,  the  discussion  here  on 
this  work  will  be  quite  general,  and  no  attempt  will  be 
made  to  describe  each  plate  in  detail,  except  where  the  con- 
struction shown  seems  to  call  for  explanation. 

Figure  172  shows  one  of  several  types  of  construction  for 
bulkheads  at  the  ends  of  poop,  bridge,  and  forecastle 
erections.  These  bulkheads  must  be  very  strong  and 
watertight. 

Since  they  are  liable  to  receive  severe  shocks  when  water 
is  taken  on  board  in  a  storm  at  sea,  the  ordinary  type  of 
mortise  for  the  studding  is  not  considered  strong  enough  in 
most  cases.  It  is  therefore  customary  to  use  some  such 
construction  as  shown  in  the  figure,  to  develop  the  full 
strength  of  the  stud  at  the  upper  and  lower  ends. 

The  coamings,  both  outside  and  inside  are  scribed  to  the 
shape  of  the  deck,  being  worked  from  timber  wide  enough 
for  this  purpose.  The  outer  coaming  is  frequently  but 
not  always  cut  down  into  the  decking  as  shown  in  the 
figure  to  provide  a  better  calking  seam  than  would  result 
with  the  coaming  simply  fayed  on  top  of  the  decking.     This 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    197 


JOINER  DETAILS 


COVERING  BftWP 


COAMIHfi 


=^  ^CA'-^f^  OgCfC 


CLAMP  COAMIMg 


CALKED  DECK' 


MAIN  DECK  BEAM 


f'lQURE."  I  7S   SHOWlHq  SECTION  OF  HEAVY   WEATHER  BULKHEAD 
/9S  USED  FOf^  POOP  BR/ QBE  AMD  FO/f^CASTLe. 


198    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

arrangement,  while  giving  a  better  calking  seam,  weakens 
the  decking  and  is  therefore  open  to  objection. 

The  studding  is  very  heavy  and  is  spaced  at  close  in- 
tervals. The  siding,  or  planking,  may  be  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  or  there  may  be  an  inner  diagonal  course  of  thinner 
planks,  with  an  outside  course  of  either  special  shiplap, 
or  matched  stuff,  both  courses  being,  on  the  outside  of  the 
studding. 

Doors  fitted  to  these  bulkheads  are  generally  of  special 
construction,  and  so  fitted  as  to  be  watertight. 

The  is  some  confusion  in  the  use  of  the  terms  coaming, 
and  sill  as  applied  to  joiner  work.  In  general  the  coaming 
is  a  rather  high,  rabbeted  member,  set  either  on  top  of  the 
decking  or  on  the  beams,  to  which  the  studs  are  mortised, 
and  which  is  exposed  to  the  weather.  It  therefore  would 
appear  only  at  the  exterior  of  the  houses,  or  erections. 
A  similar  member,  in  the  interior,  fitted  always  on  top  of 
the  decking,  and  at  the  bottom  of  bulkheads,  or  partitions, 
is  generally  called  a  sill. 

Figures  173  and  174  show  coaming  details  as  commonly 
used  on  houses  built  on  calked  decks.  The  fore  andi  aft 
coamings,  as  shown  in  Fig.  173  are  set  on  the  beams,  and 
it  will  be  noted  that  at  the  ends  of  the  houses  they  are  cut 
down  to  the  thickness  of  the  deck  planking  and  carried 
to  the  center  of  the  next  beam.  This  is  to  avoid  the  fitting 
of  a  chock  between  the  beams  to  receive  the  fastening  of 
the  decking  ends  landing  against  the  end  of  the  coaming, 
should  it  be  cut  off  at  the  corner.  Particular  note  should  be 
taken  of  the  shape  of  the  rabbet  across  the  corner  and  the 
corresponding  shape  of  the  foot  of  the  corner  post  shown  in 
Fig.  179. 

Figures  175  and  176  show  details  of  coamings  as  generally 
fitted  on  joiner  decks.  They  are  as  a  rule,  not  so  high  as  the 
coamings  used  on  bridge  decks  and  they  set  on  top  of  the 
decking,  both  at  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  houses.  In 
other  respects  they  are  much  the  same  as  the  higher  coam- 
ings shown  in  Figs.  173  and  174. 

Thwartship    coamings,    where    too    heavy    to    permit 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     199 


JOINER    DETAILS 


<     SIDIHq 


CALHCD  DECK 


,   COAMIMd  OW  SILL 


CALKED  DECK 


SCAM 


1 


FIGURE" 1 73    SHOWING   HIGH  COAMING   AS  USED  ON 
"■'""—''''"■—"■■'''— ^  BRIDGE   OR  SHELTER  DECKS -OUTBOARD 


MORTIStS 
FOR    CORNER  STUOS 


HMBBET 


ROUNDED  OFF  AS 


E.XTEHDED  TO  CEMTCR  OF  MEUT  BEAM 


FIGURE*/ 74-    SHOIVINg    CORHERCONSTRUCTIon  FOR  HI^H  OUTBOARD  COfiMmS 


200     ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

springing  must  be  scribed  from  wider  timber  to  the  shape, 
or  camber,  of  the  deck.  All  coamings,  whether  on  calked 
or  joiner  decks,  should  be  thoroughly  fastened  with  either 
screw  or  chnched  bolts,  preferably  the  former,  passing 
through  the  beams,  with  nuts  set  up  below  on  large  washers. 

Figure  175  shows  the  deck  canvas  turned  up  against  the 
coaming.  In  some  yards  it  is  the  custom  to  lay  the  deck 
canvas  before  any  coamings  or  sills  are  placed,  in  which  case 
the  coamings  would  be  on  top  of  the  canvas.  So  long  "as  the 
canvas  is  carefully  laid,  and  the  joint  against  the  coaming 
made  watertight  by  close  tacking  and  paying  with  white 
lead,  there  is  no  relative  advantage  in  either  arrangement. 

It  is  customary  to  lay  canvas  over  a  layer  of  tarred  felt, 
but  of  late,  practice  in  this  respect  has  altered,  the  canvas 
being  laid  directly  to  the  deck,  after  the  latter  has  received 
a  priming  coat  of  paint  prepared  specially  for  this  purpose. 
The  felt,  where  used,  should  not  be  tacked. 

Corner  post  details,  together  with  the  corner  studding, 
plate,  and  end  beam,  are  shown  in  Figs.  177  to  180  inclusive. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  corner  post  is,  in  a  measure,  a 
false  member,  in  that  it  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  slipped 
into  place  after  the  corner  studding,  plate  and  end  beam  are 
set  up.  The  siding  and  ceiling  are  nailed  to  both  the  corner 
studs  and  post. 

As  a  rule,  the  light  beams  used  in  houses  are  called  car- 
lines.  The  heavier  members  over  the  studding  at  the  ends 
are  called  end  beams.  Reference  may  also  be  made  at  this 
time  to  the  different  terms  used  for  siding  and  ceiling. 
While  the  term  ceiling  is  almost  universally  used  to  desig- 
nate the  inside  sheathing,  the  outer  sheathing,  is  often  called 
simply  sheathing  instead  of  siding.  Since  there  may  be  in 
special  cases  diagonal  sheathing  under  the  siding,  it  is 
deemed  best  to  use  the  term  siding  here  in  referring  to  the 
horizontal  matched  finish  on  the  outside  of  the  houses. 

Siding  and  ceiling  as  used  on  merchant  vessels  consists 
generally  of  plain  V  groove  matched  lumber. 

Inboard  bulkheads,  or  partitions,  in  joiner  house  may 
be  either  built  on  studding,  as  shown  in  Fig.  181,  or  they 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    201 


JOINER    DETAILS 


SIDING 


r /QUfTL^I  f  O    SHPyviMd  co/^Miwc  /»s  oh  joiner  deck 


M0»»TISES 

FOR    CORNER  STOPS 


TO  BCROU/<0£D 


OfF/»SReQUW£D 


PlGURE*  176  SHOWING  CORHER  COHSTRUCTtOH  OF  JOItJER  DECK  COAMIHQ 


202    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


JOINER    DCTA I LS 


^I.AT£ 


BEAM     OR  CARLINE 


CORNER  STUD 


SUIT  OVERHANG 
AT  SIPL 


•      STUD 


CORNER  3TUD-  MORTISE  AT 


TOP     NOT    SHOWN 


FIGl/RE-177  $H0WIN6    CORNE.R   POST  STUOOmO  PLATZS 
END    BEAM    AKO  CARLINE 


CEILING 


CORNER  STUD 


SIDINQ 


CORNER  STUD 


, ^'P'Nq 


»v     V-  GROOVE  FOR  FINISH 


CORNER    POST 


r  lGURE.'"»7o   SHOWINO  SECTION  OF  TyPICAL    CORNER 
"  STUODINQ  AND    POST 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    203 

may  be  built  up  of  two  thicknesses  of  ceiling,  one  thickness 
set  vertical,  and  the  other  set  diagonal,  at  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees,  the  two  thicknesses  being  well  fastened 
together.  The  latter  construction  is  called  a  diagonal 
bulkhead.  Where  diagonal  bulkheads  are  longer  than 
about  8  feet  they  should  be  fitted  with  wide  spaced  studs 
sufficient  to  stiffen  the  bulkhead  as  required.  The  edges 
of  these  bulkheads  are  landed  in  special  moldings  or  nail- 
ing strips,  which  are  first  well  fastened  in  place.  If  the 
bulkhead  lands  on  a  carline,  the  two  courses  are  either  run 
up  the  side  of  the  carline,  or  rabbetted  into  it,  and  the 
nailing  strip  is  not  used. 

Before  the  siding  and  ceiling  are  placed  on  the  outside 
walls,  or  bulkheads  of  the  houses,  the  holding  down  rods 
must  be  fitted.  These  should  be  spaced  as  shown  on  the 
joiner  plans,  or  if  not  shown  on  the  plans,  at  sufficiently 
close  intervals  to  securely  hold  the  plates  and  end  beams 
down  against  the  studding.  They  should  pass  through  the 
plate,  or  end  beam,  coaming,  deck,  and  beam,  or  carline, 
underneath.  They  are  generally  made  up  from  galvanized 
or  composition  rods,  with  nuts  and  washers  at  both  top 
and  bottom,  and  should  be  set  up  perfectly  tight  before 
any  of  the  siding  or  trim  is  placed. 

Two  types  of  door  trim  are  shown  in  Figs.  182,  183,  and 
187.  Type  I,  Figs.  182  and  183,  is  quite  generally  used 
for  both  outside  and  inside  doors,  but  the  construction 
shown  in  Type  II,  Fig.  187,  is  considered  to  be  the  better 
arrangement  for  outside,  or  weather  doors.  With  the  type 
of  trim  shown  in  Figs.  182  and  183,  the  joint  between  head 
and  side  jambs  is  frequently  made  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  184.  If  not  made  in  this  manner,  it  would  in  any 
case  show  a  miter  at  the  edges,  the  middle  part  being  coped. 
The  side  jamb  is  coped  over  the  threshold  in  such  manner 
that  the  threshold  may  be  set  in  place  first,  and  the  balance 
of  the  frame  slipped  into  place  over  it.  In  Fig.  187  the 
outside  part  of  the  jambs  would  be  mitered  at  the  top, 
while  the  main  pieces  would  show  a  miter  inside  to  the 
rabbet,   the   balance  being  coped.     The  main  piece  sets 


204    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


JOINER    DETAILS 


BEAM  LANDING 


PLATE  LANDING 


FIGURE- 175  LOIVER  EHDOF 
CORNER  POST 


F/GUPE-180  UPPER  END  OF 

CORNER  POST 


MLAMJi 


■  Ptr^TE 


STUDS 


FIGURE-/3/      TYPICAL   INBOARD  SILL  AHO  PLATE  >HRPANGEM£NT 
TO  BE  CEILED   ON  EACH   SIDE 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    205 


JOINER    DETAILS 


FIGURE-162  PLAIN  DOOR  FIGURE  -/85  door  frame 

FRAME  AHDTRm  AND  TRIM  WHERE INBOMtD 
fYPE^I                                         SCREEN  DOOR  IS  FITTED 
TYPE'I 


\  ' 

—\\ 

SIDE.  JAMB 


HEAD  JAMB 


FIGURE^IS^     SHOWING     METHOD  OF    MITERING 
SIDE  AND    MEAD    JAMBS 


206    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

on  top  of  the  threshold,  and  the  entire  frame  is  frequently 
built  in  the  joiner  shop  and  set  in  place  as  a  unit. 

Jambs  and  thresholds  must  be  well  fastened  with  either 
large  galvanized  nails,  or  screws,  with  their  heads  set  in 
counterbores,  which  are  later  plugged. 

The  depth  of  rabbet  for  outside  doors  should  be  about 
%  inch.  That  for  inside  doors  may  be  J^  inch.  The  face 
of  the  rabbets  should  be  given  a  slope  to  allow  for  the  swing 
out  of  the  inner  corner  of  the  door  when  it  is  opened. 

Thresholds  are  commonly  covered  with  either  sheet 
brass,  or  lead,  to  protect  them  from  chafing. 

Former  practice  has  been  to  fit  drop  sash  in  the  upper 
houses  of  steamers,  of  the  type  shown  in  Figs.  185  and 
186.  However  since  this  type  of  sash  cannot  be  made 
storm  tight,  and  has  to  be  fitted  to  drop  into  lead  pockets, 
which  are  not  only  troublesome  to  build,  but  often  give 
trouble  through  leaking  after  the  ship  is  in  commission, 
the  type  of  sash  shown  in  Fig.  188  has  been  devised,  and 
has  recently  come  into  general  use.  In  this  type  the  frame 
can  be  built  complete  in  the  shop  and  set  in  the  ship  as  a 
unit. 

All  sash  that  drop,  should  be  fitted  with  catches  to 
hold  them  in  any  position.  In  addition  they  should  be 
fitted  with  good  locks  holding  them  shut,  and  which  cannot 
be  worked  from  the  outside.  On  sash  of  Type  II,  Fig. 
188,  an  ordinary  sash  lock  may  be  fitted  to  the  parting 
rail. 

All  sash  and  doors,  and  frames  for  them,  where  made  in 
the  shop,  must  be  carefully  built  to  the  proper  bevel  to 
fit  the  opening  on  the  ship.  Very  few  of  these  openings, 
if  any,  will  be  perfectly  square. 

In  setting  the  glass  in  the  sash  it  is  customary  to  tack  a 
smaH  molding,  or  bead,  against  the  glass  to  hold  it  in 
place,  instead  of  puttying  it  in  as  is  done  with  the  sash  in 
buildings.  The  glass  is  first  set  in  a  rather  stiff  white  lead 
putty  to  make  it  watertight.  The  bead  may  either  be 
located  on  the  inside  of  the  sash  as  shown  in  Fig.  185,  or  on 
the  outside  as  shown  in  Fig.  188.     If  set  on  the  inside 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    207 


JOINER     DETAILS 


208    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


UOINER    DETAILS 


StDtW6 


CEILING 


r^ 

f^ 

N 

y^ni 

{  ,    RABBET  FOR 

1       SCRSLZti  DOOR 
R»BBCT  FOR 

L 

x> 

OUTSIDE  DOOR 

COAMINQ 


FIGURE-/a7 

SHOWINQ  DOOR   FRAME  AND 
TRIM    WHERE   INBOARD  SCREEN 
DOOR    IS   FITTED 

TVPE-n 


SIDING 


STUP 


ceiLiNS. 


3TOP 


UPPER  SASH 
/tRRAH^tO  TO  DROP 


PARTIMC  RAIL 


LOtVCR  SASH 
FIXED 


SIWL 


^CEILING 


FiGURE-iaa 

SHOWINQ     SASH  AND  FRAME 
BUILT  AND  SET  IN  PLACE  AS  A  UNIT 


TYPE-n 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    209 

extreme  care  must  be  taken  in  leading,  or  puttying  the 
glass  in  to  make  it  watertight.  It  is  generally  considered 
the  best  practice  to  place  the  bead  on  the  outside. 

Sash  may  be  used  only  in  houses  that  are  high  enough 
above  the  water  line  to  be  comparatively  free  from  the 
danger  of  impact  from  solid  water  during  storms.  In  the 
lower  house,  such  as  the  poop  house,  and  bridge-deck 
house,  port  lights  are  generally  used.  They  are  built 
of  very  heavy  glass,  usually  about  ^i  inch  thick,  set  in  a 
composition  or  galvanized  iron  frame,  and  are  so  arranged 
that  they  can  be  made  perfectly  watertight.  In  addition, 
where  these  ports  are  fitted  to  the  hull  they  have  storm 
shutters  of  metal  which  would  maintain  the  watertightness 
of  the  port  even  if  the  glass  were  broken. 

Storm  shutters  are  also  fitted  to  sash  openings  where  they 
are  in  any  way  likely  to  be  exposed  to  the  direct  force  of 
a  storm.  They  consist  of  solid  built  up  heavy  wood 
panels,  with  a  small  fixed  glass,  usually  round,  set  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  glass  in  sash  are  set. 

Various  details  of  trim  that  may  be  used  in  merchant 
vessels  are  shown  in  Figs.  189  to  193  inclusive.  The 
exact  form  of  the  details  to  be  used  depends  largely  upon 
the  arrangement  of  the  houses.  Also  the  form  of  the 
moldings  selected  by  the  designer  may  be  quite  different 
from  those  shown  in  the  figures,  but  as  a  whole,  the  ar- 
rangement of  these  moldings,  and  parts,  shown  here, 
is  quite  generally  used  and  gives  a  house  of  pleasing  ap- 
pearance though  simple  in  construction  as  would  generally 
be  required  on  merchant  vessels. 

Carlines  unless  quite  heavy,  are  generally  sprung  to 
the  camber.  In  wheel  and  pilot  houses,  where  there  are  no 
intermediate  supports  for  the  carlines  they  must  be  sawn 
to  the  full  camber.  Very  often  the  amount  of  camber  given 
the  house  carUnes,  particularly  those  in  houses  not  having 
much  thwartship  breadth,  is  greater  than  the  corresponding 
amount  of  camber  in  the  deck  below.  This  is  done  to  avoid 
the  appearance  of  flatness  in  narrow  decks  above  wider 
decks,  when  they  are  given  the  same  camber. 

14  .  . 


210    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


JOINER   DETAILS 


JOINER  DECK 


HEADER 


CEILING    ^ 


STVO 


MCiA 


MOCD 


FIGURE- 189        SHOWING    trim    F6R   shout  CV£t(  HAHQS 


OECKINO  NOT  SHOWN  DECKIWO   NOT  SHOtWf 

C^RLINE 


HE^DEO 


£oy£_ 


PkAIE. 


CEILINq 


ft-AyE 


C^IMH<t 


FIGURE-lgO     SMOWINC    SIMPLE  FIGURE"  >9  I      SHOWINO  StWPLE 


FOR.M     or   INTERIOR  TRIM 
IVITHOUT    BEAM  CAPPING 


FORM  OF  INTERIOR  TRIM 
WITH  BEAM  CAPPING 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK     211 


212    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 

All  carlines  should  be  thoroughly  fastened  at  the  plates 
over  outside  walls,  and  at  the  stanchion  stringers,  where 
there  is  wide  overhang,  with  carriage  bolts  of  suitable  size. 
The  fastening  of  finish  joiner  work  in  general  consists  of 
common  nails,  finish  or  casing  nails,  screws,  etc.,  all  of 
which  should  be  galvanized,  or  composition.  In  the  pilot 
house,  within  a  radius  of  usually  not  less  than  four  feet 
from  the  compass,  nothing  but  copper,  or  composition 
fastening  is  used.  It  is  also  customary  to  make  all  of  the 
holding  down  rods  for  this  house  of  composition. 

All  joiner  hardware,  must  without  exception  be  solid 
composition.  All  door  hardware,  sash  hardware,  coat 
and  hat  hooks,  drawer  and  wardrobe  locks,  etc.,  are  there- 
fore of  special  design  for  marine  purposes. 

Interior  built  in  fittings,  such  as  berths,  wardrobes, 
buffets,  tables,  settees,  chart  tables,  wall  desks,  etc.,  are 
now  generally  built  in  the  shop,  or  mill,  and  when  the  house 
structure  is  completed  it  is  only  necessary  to  scribe  them 
to  place.  Very  often,  of  course,  when  such  items  as  lockers, 
wardrobes,  and  settees  are  built  up  of  ceiling,  instead  of 
paneling,  it  may  be  found  best  to  build  them  directly  in 
place. 

In  former  times  it  was  not  unusual  for  ship's  houses  to 
be  built  with  no  plans  except  those  giving  a  general  layout 
of  the  rooms,  etc.  Detail  joiner  plans  were  entirely  lacking, 
this  matter  being  left  to  the  head  joiner,  who  arranged 
the  work  as  in  his  judgment  seemed  best.  Naturally  this 
required  experienced  joiners  with  years  of  experience, 
who  were  at  that  time  available,  owing  to  the  small  amount 
of  ship  work  then  under  way.  Today,  with  a  great  amount 
of  ship  construction  under  way,  experienced  joiners  are 
not  available  in  sufficient  numbers  to  permit  such  a  pro- 
cedure, hence  it  is  now  customary  to  furnish  full  and  com- 
plete detail  plans  of  all  joiner  work,  showing  its  exact 
form  and  arrangement  in  every  part.  A  close  study  of 
the  figures  shown  in  this  chapter,  even  though  much  of 
necessity  is  omitted,  will  assist  the  reader  materially  in 
the  proper  interpretation  of  these  plans. 


PLANKING,  ERECTIONS  AND  JOINER  WORK    213 


214    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


ADDENDA 


In  the  foregoing  discussions,  the  ship  has  been  consid- 
ered part  by  part,  and  no  details  have  been  shown  giving 
the  direct  relation  of  one  part  to  another,  except  those 
which  are  directly  related  to  each  other.  To  aid  the 
reader  in  making  direct  comparisons  between  the  parts 
shown  and  the  ship  as  a  whole.  Figs.  194  and  195  have 
been  added,  showing  skeleton  inboard  profiles  of  two  types 
of  ships  that  have  been  discussed.  Also,  for  the  same 
reason,  midship  sections,  of-  two  types  of  both  light  and 
heavy  scantling  ships  are  shown  in  Figs.  195  to  199 
inclusive. 


ADDENDA 


215 


J 

ui 

UJ 

a. 

«0 

^ 

£ 

> 

o 

o 

1 

o 

J 

z 

< 

UJ 

q: 

o 

!3 

J 

CO 

3 

J 
J 

u 

U 

u 
a: 

I 

tZ 

^ 

h 

216    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


> 

U) 

o> 

5C 

Q 

=) 

it 

o 

1^ 

li. 

-J 

UJ 

X 

(0 

ADDENDA 


217 


218    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


ADDENDA 


219 


220    ELEMENTS  OF  WOOD  SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Beam  chocks,  129 
Beams,  111 
Bevel  board,  46 
Bevel  stick,  46 
Bevels,  ceiling,  98 

for  frames,  46 

standing  and  under,  73 
Bosom  knees,  128,  129 
Bow  framing,  58 
Breast  hooks,  135 
Building  of  the  frame,  49 
Bulkheads,  hold,  108,  109 
Bulwarks,  181,  184,  189,  191 


Cants,  41 

fitting  and  fastening  of,  60 
Carlines,  202 
Ceiling,  arrangement  of,  93,  94 

bevels,  98 
Chock  rail,  181-184 
Chocks,  between  deck  beams  under 

fittings,  137 
Clamps,  86 

and  shelves,  89,  91 
Coamings,  house,  199,  201 
Corner  posts,  202,  204 


Fastening,  arrangement  of,  in  frame, 
62 

ceiling,  93,  94 

clamp,  86,  89,  91 

decking,  150 

for  waterways,  140,  143 

keelson,  80,  82 

knee,  116 

planking,  177 

shelf,  89,  91 

stem,  17 

stern  frame,  71 

various  styles  of,  74 
Flare,  73 
Fore  and  afters,  at  hatches,  126,  128, 

129 
Forecastle,  189 
Frame  bevels,  46 

forward  square,  38 

last  square  aft,  40 

last  square  forward,  39 

long  and  short  arm  floor,  33 

long  and  short  floor,  35,  36 
Framing  stage,  49 
Freeing  ports,  193 
Free  stem,  14 


Deck  beams,  111 

hooks,  135 

molds  for,  111 

stringers,  128,  129 
Decking,  146,  147,  150 
Diagonal  strapping,  on  hull,  162 
Door  trim,  205,  208 


Garboards,  80,  82 
Gripe,  16 


Half  breadths,  73 
Half  frames,  41 

fitting  and  fastening  of,  60 


221 


222 


INDEX 


Harpins,  bow,  56 
Hatch  battens,  157 

cleats  and  staples,  157 

coamings,  126,  128,  129 
corners  of,  131 

covers,  157 
Hatch  cover  handles,  157 

framing,  126,  128,  129 

irons,  152,  154 
Hatches,  details  of,  152,  154 
Hawse  timber,  58 
Hold  bulkheads,  108,  109 

stanchions,  118 
Horning,  frame,  49 
House  coamings,  199,  201 

trim,  210,  211,  213 
HuU  erections,  181,  184,  186,  189 


Inboard  profile,  shelter  deck  vessel, 
216 
three  island  vessel,  215 


Limbers,  62 

Lining,  hull  planking,  166,  169, 170 

Lodging  knees,  126,  128,  129 


M 


Main  rail,  181,  184,  189,  191 
Mast  collars  and  wedges,  195 
partners,  137 
steps,  195 
Metal  fastening,  74 
Midship    section,    heavy    scantling 
vessel,  shelter  deck  type, 
219 
three  island  type,  217 
light    scantling    vessel,    shelter 
deck  type,  220 
three  island  type,  218 
Monkey  rail,  189 


N 


Nib  strakes,  for  decking,  146,  147, 
150 


Joiner  details,  197,  199,  201,  202, 
204,205,207,208,210,211, 
213 


Offsets,  73 


Keel  block  crib,  2 

blocks,  plain,  4j 

ends,  after,  9 
forward,  6 

scarfs,  7 
Keelsons,  arrangements  of,  79,  80,  82 

ends  of,  84 
Knees,  at  hatches,  126,  128,  129 

natural  crook,  proportions  of, 
114 

pricking  to  place,  116 
Knightheads,  58 


Planking,  hull,  166 

Plates,  house,  202-204 

Plumbing  and  squaring  first  frame, 

54 
Pointers,  103,  106 
Poops,  181,  184 
Proportions  of  wedges,  4 


R 


Rabbets,  various  forms  of,  28 
Removable  beams  at  hatches,  152, 
154 


INDEX 


223 


Rudder  braces,  21 

post,  for  single  screw  steamer, 
21 
for  twin  screw  steamer,  23 


Scarfs,  ceiling,  93,  94 
clamp,  91 


Stern  frame,  for  single  deck  vessels, 
65,  66 
with  steel  rudder,  68 
with  wood  rudder,  69 
post,  for  large  single  screw  ves- 
sels, 19 
small  vessel  type,  18 
on  twin  screw  vessels,  23 
Strongbacks,  hatch,  152,  154 
Studding,  house,  199,  201,  204 


keel,  7 

main  rail,  186,  191 
Scuppers,  deck,  193 
Shaft  logs,  25 
Sills,  house,  204 
Solid  work,  around  stern,  186 
Spiling,  garboard  hood,  174 
Spring  of  keel,  layout  of,  7 
Square  frames,  33,  35,  36,  38,  39,  40 
Squaring  first  frame,  54 
Stanchions,  hold,  118 
Stem  fastening,  17 

typical  free,  14 

typical  steamer,  13 

typical  with  gripe,  16 


Transom  frames,  62 
Transoms,  103 
Trim,  house,  210,  211,  213 
Trimmers,  at  hatches,  126 
Tumble,  73 

W 

Waterways,  140,  143,  144,  146,  147 
Weather  bulkheads,  197 
Wedges,  proper  placing  of,  4 

proportions  of,  4 
Window  trim,  207,  208 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 

University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
BIdg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 

(510)642-6753 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  NRLF 
Renewals    and    recharges    may    be    made    4    days 

prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


~1 


SEP  I1 1996 


20,000(4/94)  I 

K«c  FEB  1  9  1986 


T  T^  oi  A    ftrt^  A  'HA  General  Library 

^/S.^M"?2?;t'«??  University  of  California 

(E455osl0)476B  Berkeley 


iU> 


fif«fft/ll 


l-IBRABY 


3937-51 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  UBRARY 


M'      •:   ?»!•. 


